Pulmonary Rehabilitation and QoL in Lung Cancer Patients

Pulmonary Rehabilitation and QoL in Lung Cancer Patients PULMONARY REHABILITATION AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN LUNG CANCER PATIENTS (Abstract):The quality of life in patients with lung cancer is determined both by factors related to the patient (stage of disease, comorbidities) and the factors related to treatment (surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy). Since the impact of treatment on survival of patients with lung canceris quite low, quality of life is a goal increasingly important. Until now, quality oflife was properly assessed in few studies and the results can be influenced by the use of non- validated methods. The most usedtools adapted for measuring the quality of life for lung cancer are the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) LC-13 questionnaire, the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy (FACT-L) questionnaire and the Lung Cancer Symptom Scale (LCSS). Keywords:LUNG CANCER, QUALITY OF LIFE, REHABILITATION. Lung cancer is one of the most common types of cancer, with a 5-year survival rate of approximately 15 %. Given the evolution of long asymptomatic lung cancer in contrast to other tumor types, it is often diagnosed at an advanced stage. Symptoms include cough, hemoptysis, dyspnea, chest pain, weakness, loss of appetite.Therefore, treatment goals for these patients are relief of symptoms and increased overall survival [1]. Therapies that improve the survival rate are often accompanied by severe side effects. Due to the increasing number of alternative lines of therapy and treatment, the decrease differences in the clinical effectiveness and drug development costs, the importance of estimating the parameters of quality of life (QOL) increases both health and economic reasons. So little time, the inclusion of these parameters in lung cancer clinical trials was generally neglected [1-3]. During 2001-2011, there were 43 studies conducted to measure health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of patients with lung cancer, 27 of which had as main objective HRQoL. Most publicationsillustrate the results of phase III clinical trials, 38 included patients with locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), especially in stage III/IV, two studies included patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC) in all stages and three studies included both patients with NSCLC and SCLC. Most studies have investigated the impact of platinum based drug combinations, 6 studies have investigated the effect of gefitinib and 2 studies concerns of erlotinib. Between the questionnaires used to assess quality of life in patients with lung cancer are mentioned questionnaire of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC QLQ C30) questionnaire, Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-General (FACT G) questionnaire, FACT-L (Lung) questionnaire, Lung Cancer Symptom Scale (LCSS), Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Brief Pain Index (BPI). The most commonly used is the EORTC QLQ-C30 contains 30 criteria, available in 60 languages à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹[4]. FACT-G questionnaire containing 27 physical elements, emotional, social, functional, available in more than 50 languages à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹[5] and the FACT-L is suitable for lung cancer and contains 37 items assessing quality of life [6]. Due to the homogeneity characteristics of the patients and treatment regimens, it is not possible to compare all of the studies on the HRQoL. Most studies include comparing different chemotherapy regimens did not show significant differences in HRQoL between treatment arms [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14]. Another group of studies report cautious assumptions to improve HRQoL [15,16,17]. Only Belani et al. and Reck et al. indicates HRQoL superiority of paclitaxel or docetaxel compared with vincristine or vinorelbine/cisplatin [18,19]. Regarding EGFR inhibitors, Gelibter et al., Mu et al., And Zhang et al. been shown to improve HRQoL in patients with highly advanced NSCLC treated with gefitinib [20,21,22]. Cella et al. and Natale et al. reported improvements in HRQoL after administration of gefitinib and correlate these improvements with tumor response [23,24]. Regarding erlotinib, Lilenbaum et al. could not demonstrate significant improvement in progression-free survival, median survival and HRQoL compared to standard chemotherapy regimen [25]. Bezjak et al. HRQoL showed significant improvement, where erlotinib is administered in the second line of treatment [26]. LUX- Lung 3 study conducted on a population of patients with advanced NSCLC with EGFR mutation positive, showed an unprecedented improvement in cancer-related symptoms and increase quality of life when treated first line with afatinib, an irreversible inhibitor of the ErbB receptor family, compared to chemotherapy with pemetrexed and cisplatin, considered the standard of care in this population of patients with NSCLC [27]. Lung cancer or lung metastases often have symptoms for which palliative radiotherapy is effective [28,29] and improves or maintains quality of life, for about one-third of affected patients [30]. There are forty-three studies that are assessed in at least one arm of the study, use of palliative thoracic radiotherapy that evaluated QOL or symptoms palliation a primary or secondary. Thirty studies have evaluated the treatment of patients with NSCLC. Four studies involved patients who were treated with endobronchial brachytherapy alone or in combination with external radiotherapy. Other nine studies have evaluated the use of palliative radiotherapy in patients with lung cancer other than NSCLC histological type. Clinical trials that compared different regimens of palliative radiotherapy fractionation showed improved quality of life and survival in patients with good performance status who received high doses of radiation (TD = 30Gy/10fractions/3Gy/fraction) compared with lower doses (TD = 20Gy/5fractions/4Gy/fraction, 17Gy/2fractions, 10Gy/1fraction), which are mainly used in patients with reduced performance status and may be interspersed between the series of chemotherapy without causing delay in chemotherapy administration [31,32]. Impact of new radiotherapy techniques (IMRT intensity modulated radiotherapy, IGRT guided radiotherapy imaging) and PET -CT imaging integration in the palliative treatment of patients with pulmonary cancer is not clearly defined. Relative to the palliative role of endobronchial brachytherapy, recent analysis of 13 clinical trials concluded that external radiotherapy is superior endobronchial brachytherapy and brachytherapy added to external radiation has no advantages over external radiotherapy alone [33]. So far, not demonstrated an advantage of concomitant radio chemotherapy to sequential administration for symptoms palliation in patients with lung cancer [34,35,36,37]. First programs of pulmonary rehabilitation have been developed in The United States of America in the 1970’s .Since then, several specialists tried to define better the term of â€Å"pulmonary rehabilitation â€Å": ‘’Pulmonary rehabilitation is a multi-dimensional continuum of services directed to persons with pulmonary disease and their families, usually by an interdisciplinary team of specialists, with the goal of achieving and maintaining the individuals maximum level of independence and functioning within the community’’(1) Pulmonary rehabilitation may be defined as an art of medical practice wherein an individually tailored, multidisciplinary program is formulated which through accurate diagnosis, therapy, emotional support, and education, stabilizes or reverses both the physio and psychopathology of pulmonary diseases and attempts to return the patients to the highest possible functional capacity allowed by his pulmonary handicap and overall life situation.(2) The definition given by the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP), the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation (AACVPR), the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and European Respiratory Society (ERS) â€Å" an evidence-based, multi-disciplinary, and comprehensive intervention for patients with chronic respiratory diseases who are symptomatic and often have decreased daily life activities. Integrated into the individualized treatment of the patient, pulmonary rehabilitation is designed to reduce symptoms, optimize functional status, increase participation, and reduce health care costs through stabilizing or reversing systemic manifestations of the disease.†(3) The most recent definition Pulmonary rehabilitation is a comprehensive intervention based on a thorough patient assessment followed by patient-tailored therapies which include, but are not limited to, exercise training, education, and behavior change, designed to improve the physical and psychological condition of people with chronic respiratory disease and to promote the long-term adherence to health-enhancing behaviors.(4) To understand better the importance of these rehabilitation programs, here are some statements of some patients with pulmonary diseases: -â€Å"It can be extremely upsetting because I can’t find the breath of life that we all need.â€Å" -â€Å"My legs ached, my shoulders ached, my arms ached .I couldn’t continue with my hobbies. I lost hope completely. I literally wanted to die.† -â€Å" This is very depressing ; this makes me very anxious!â€Å" Over time pulmonary rehabilitation has been an important part in the management of COPD and of other chronic lung diseases. Rehabilitation in lung cancer has not been studied so extensively as the rehabilitation in COPD but the results from various studies indicate clearly the importance of pre and post surgery rehabilitation. Patients who had or have to go through a lung cancer surgery may have breathlessness, pain, fatigue, anxiety, poor physical condition and low quality of life.For oncology patients, pulmonary rehabilitation is not just about how the patient learns to breathe properly and respiratory muscle training, but a multitude of factors that together help the patient to support more easily the surgery or chemo-radiotherapy , to have an early recovery and to increase quality of life. Judging by the motto There are no diseases, but sick people, pulmonary rehabilitation for patients with lung cancer , also has to be personalized . It may be regarded as the tailoring of the rehabilitation programme to the patient’s needs and characteristics and also, to the evolution of his oncological disease. How pulmonary rehabilitation helps people with lung cancer? -helps the patient to carry out his daily activities -increases the quality of life helps to improve general health -decrease the number of postsurgical complications -hastens the postoperative recovery -prevents respiratory tract infections Pulmonary rehabilitation is a complex process and may include the following: Breathing techniques (diaphragmatic breathing, pursed-lip breathing) Energy conservation techniques Aerobic (to increase pulmonary capacity) Respiratory muscle strengthening techniques Nutrition tips Counseling and relaxation techniques Group therapy Before establishing a pulmonary rehabilitation program must be identified that baseline what the patient can do easily, what kind of daily activities is able to do and what kind of activities are done with difficulty. Pulmonary rehabilitation can and pre and / or post surgical. Rehabilitation period is decided by an interdisciplinary team consisting of pneumologist, oncologist and thoracic surgeon. Preoperative rehabilitation can decrease the number of postoperative complications, speed recovery and may also have an economic impact, reducing the number of days of hospitalization, postoperative morbidity. Studies have shown that postoperative rehabilitation is good to be started after about 3 or 4 months after surgery. The minimum duration of a pulmonary rehabilitation exercise program has not yet been widely established. Pulmonary rehabilitation should be taken into consideration for all the patients with lung cancer no matter what stage .Rehabilitation is beneficial for all stages of lung cancer, even for inoperable cases. Moreover, we could say that pulmonary rehabilitation is an essential aspect of the palliative measures in patients with lung cancer. Pulmonary rehabilitation also has it’s riscks, for example, it can cause arrhythmias or cardiac arrest in patients with cardiac pathology, it can cause bone lessions or muscle injuries. Education The patient must learn what he has to do to take care of himself better and to maximize quality of life. The most important thing is that the patient must practice and continue for a lifetime everything he learnt during the medical rehabilitation program conducted at the hospital. Nutrition is an important aspect of the rehabilitation programs because, in most cases, lung cancer patients already have a poor nutritional status which can be caused by the consumptive syndrome, the treatment or because of the depressive syndrome that is often encountered in patients with cancer. The effects of malnutrition in patients with lung cancer: increased fatigue vulnerability to infections -decreases compliance to treatment -delay recovery -affects quality of life Recommendations on nutrition in lung cancer: -eat frequent small portions -eat high-protein and high-calorie foods -avoid fast food and carbonated drinks -do not take vitamins without doctor recommendation use spices to get a better taste of the food -the meat will be cooked at high temperatures -no fried foods -cooking will be done in stringent conditions of cleanliness -adequate hydration, at least 2 liters of fluid per day Counseling Finding the diagnosis of malignancy, the disease and the multitude of investigations and treatments applied to patients with cancer are sources of psycho-emotional stress. Through psychological counseling, the patient finds new ways to adopt a lifestyle as healthy as it can and receives the necessary power to replace negative emotions.. Oncology patients are special patients that require special attention and support from the whole multidisciplinary team and also from their families. In the cases where palliative care is the only solution, the pulmonary rehabilitation team must prepare the patient for a dignified end. Pulmonary rehab is a chance for people with lung cancer to get help, to have a better quality life, to understand better their disease and to feel much confident.

Interpretation of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet :: Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

Interpretation of Romeo and Juliet What would cause young lovers to mysteriously commit suicide so they can be together? Is it their parents who forbid them to see one another, or is it themselves? William Shakespeare's play, Romeo and Juliet, tells about two young "star-crossed lovers" whose deaths were caused by fate, not their parents or themselves. First of all, Romeo and Juliet were from feuding families: Romeo a Montague, and Juliet a Capulet. Romeo was so depressed about his unrequited love for Rosaline when it just so happens, he goes to a masquerade party. There, he falls for Juliet, the daughter of Lord Capulet, and forgot about Rosaline. When they're finally torn apart, that's when both Romeo and Juliet realize they are from enemy families. Their love, of course, brings down their immediate marriage and Friar Lawrence agrees in hope to stop the feuding families. Unfortunately, Tybalt and Mercutio are killed and Romeo gets banished leaving Juliet without a husband or a cousin. "O, I am a fortune's fool," (Act III, Scene I) explains how Romeo felt at the moment of Tybalt's death. He felt that he fell into one of fate's many cruel games and it was too late to get out. When things are just getting worst, Lord Capulet arranges for Juliet to marry Paris causing Juliet to panic. She then has to hurry and do something to stop the wedding and of course fate would just happen to guide her back to Friar Lawrence. Fate wouldn't just stop there. He just kept on going. He has it arranged that Friar John, the messenger who was suppose to deliver the news of Juliet's fake death, quarantined. Romeo finds out that Juliet is dead from Balthazar and screams out, "Is it e'en so?--Then I defy you, stars!" (Act 5, scene 1, pg. 213). He blames Juliet's death on fate and returns to Verona with poison to join her. He leaves a little before Friar John tells Friar Lawrence about his failure to deliver the message. Still, fate didn't stop there. He then makes Friar Lawrence leave his cell and rush to the Capulet vault . Unfortunately, Friar Lawrence is just a little too late and Romeo gets there before he

Ethnic and Racial Group overview Essay

While I have always believed myself to be reasonably educated about racial diversity, and non-prejudice against those who come from different ethnic backgrounds than my own, this course has taught me that there is much more to the history and reality of Americas struggle to overcome the all too real problem that is prejudice and discrimination. I have learned much about my own background and history that I was not previously aware of as well. The history of Prejudice and discrimination in America dates as far back as to the days of slavery. While to most this is a well-known fact, there are a few facts about my own ethnic history that were not well-known to me until I participated in this course. The fact that stands out the most is that German immigrants (such as my own grandparents) suffered a reality of segregation in schools and language barriers, not unlike that of today’s Mexican Americans. German Americans struggled to establish bi-lingual schools because they were a growing population in America, and the need was apparent. Knowing this opens up a whole new perspective of my understanding of just how equal we all really are. Because trends in immigration have grown steadily and will continue to grow well into the future, by the year 2050, the U. S. population will experience a culture of diversity so elaborate, and so completely wide spread; resulting in America having no choice but to unite, or suffer from mass self-destruction of the worst kind. The challenges of such a diverse America will be apparent in many ways, and there will be some of the same issues of discrimination and prejudice that have always been. With all of the different cultures coming together, there will be inevitable language barriers, which will result in a continued issue of segregation among children, and the added challenge of providing them with equal educational opportunities. In the same way that children have to face the challenges of diversity, so do the adults who will face discrimination and possible insufficient opportunity to move forward based on their race. On the other hand, when faced with such diversity, America as a whole will be forced to accept change, and perhaps finally overcome the issues that it has been faced with for so long. The opportunity will rise, with the variety of diversity, to become educated about those who are around us. Because there will be nothing else to do but find a way to work together, or to fail as nation, I think that the way that we all see one another is going to change significantly. The idea that others are inferior in any way to any other individual will begin to fade, because with so much diversity all around, there will not be a majority, nor a minority. Perhaps equality in racial group numbers will finally be the key to unlock the door to a prejudice-free America.

Sahir Kara Essays

Sahir Kara Essays Sahir Kara Essay Sahir Kara Essay To investigate how the shape and size of an organism affects the rate of temperature loss away from the organism.Background Knowledge:Most of the substances transported in the blood are carried dissolved in plasma. The main constituent of blood plasma is water (90% of blood plasma) (RESOURCE 1), from which heat can be lost by conduction, convection, radiation or evaporation.(RESOURCE 2)The limbs of a mammal or bird can easily be simulated using water-filled test tubes of differing sizes, to represent models of a real life situation. The main method of transferring heat energy in a fluid (e.g.: water) is by convection. As a generalisation, most mammals and birds live in habitats where their body temperature is above that of their surroundings. (RESOURCE 3) Therefore, heat energy is principally lost from the bodies of mammals and birds by convecting and radiating away. Any liquid that is warmer than its surroundings will expand, so its particles occupy a greater volume than before (as they vibrate with the heat energy supplied). This in turn means that there is a decrease in density of the liquid, and the warmer particles move upwards (convection) and away (radiation) from the organism, through the blood vessels and protective skin. (RESOURCE 2)Mammals and birds (which are all warm-blooded organisms) have the ability to regulate their body temperatures, keeping their bodies within a set optimum range. Therefore, any heat energy lost is replaced by expending energy from food taken in, to keep body temperatures constant (37degrees in humans). (RESOURCE 1)Prediction:I predict that the larger the surface area / volume ratio of a model, the greater the rate of heat loss away from the simulation will be. Therefore, the surface area / volume ratio of a model is directly proportional to the rate of heat loss away from the model.Prediction Reasoning:As the surface area / volume ratio of a model increases, more heat energy is, in reality, able to escape away from the test tube at one time. The surface area / volume ratio is effectively the amount of heat energy that is in contact with the external surroundings at one time (surface area) divided by the amount of heat energy that is actually inside the test tube to begin with. The greatest surface area / volume ratio can come about when the surface area is at its greatest, and the volume is at its smallest.Therefore, if a test tube with the highest surface area / volume ratio was used, it would take far less time to lose of temperature than a test tube with the smallest surface area / volume ratio. Therefore, the same amount of temperature would have been lost in a shorter space of time, and the rate of heat loss would be directly proportional to the surface area / volume ratio of model used. (RESOURCE 2)Prediction Graph:Key factors to vary: Variables:INPUTOUTCOMECONTROLLEDPossible:* Surface area / volume ratio of model used. (%)Values:To be confirmed in preliminary work.As the aim of the investigation is to find how the shape and size of an organism affects the rate of heat loss away from it, this is the only input variable that can be chosen.There are, inevitably, different experiments that could be carried out in this area of work. However, I have chosen to investigate this aim, and therefore the above reasoning for choosing this input variable is valid.Possible:* Rate of heat loss away from the model. (temp. / time)As with the input variable chosen, the outcome variable is also set. The rate of heat loss in this experiment can only be carried out by taking continuous measurements of temperature, and dividing by the time in which the change in temperature occurred.Possible:* Temperature of surroundings. (Degrees C)* Temperature of water at the beginning (Degrees C)* Movement and objects touching model.* Thermometer used.All of the above variables shall be controlled. Without these variables being controlled, the experiment would be unfair, and the results inaccurate because a certain variable that should be controlled could be varying affecting the results as they should not be.The temperature of the water at the beginning and end of the experiment must be kept controlled for all readings taken, as should the movement of the test tubes. The temperature of the surroundings must be controlled as well as possible, so that the readings of transfer of heat away from the test tube are as fair as possible.Preliminary work:Certain pieces of preliminary work have to be completed before the actual investigation can begin. This is to check that the things that I plan to do are possible, and to find out what control variables to use (values).For the preliminary work of this investigation, I need to find 6 test tubes that have surface area / volume ratios that are sufficiently well spread. I intend to find all of the different test tubes that are available, and find the surface area and volume of each. I will then work out the surface area / volume ratio of each, an d select 6 different test tubes that have sufficiently well spread surface area / volume ratios. This will help with the fairness of the investigation.To work out the surface area of a test tube, I will first find the diameter of the test tube, and halve it to find the radius. The radius will be squared, and multiplied by Pi(?). From this, I will be able to find the surface area of the top and bottom of the effective cylinder. To find the area of the remainder of the test tube, I will take the original diameter, and multiply it by Pi (?), to find the circumference. The circumference should then be multiplied by the length of the test tube (from the top of the test tube to the middle of the spherical bottom), to find the overall area of the rest of the test tube. (RESOURCE 4 PAGE 115) The actual overall surface area of a test tube is therefore =To work out the volume of a test tube, I will fill the test tube with water, and pour this water into a measuring cylinder of an appropriate capacity, as shown:The surface area / volume ratio of a test tube is therefore found by dividing the surface area by the volume.The second piece of preliminary work that I will complete will be to find an appropriate temperature from which each experiment for the actual investigation should begin. This temperature should be easy to obtain in every test tube (using a kettle or Bunsen burner), and should take an appropriate amount of time to reduce to the end temperature (i.e.: not too long), for test tubes that have even the smallest surface area / volume ratio.Also, I should find suitable intervals for taking results in the actual experiment, by finding how long it takes for the test tube with the largest surface area / volume ratio to lose heat (from 70à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C).Preliminary work RESULTS:Selected?Test tube #Length(cm)Diameter (cm)Volume (cm3)Surface Area (cm2)S.A / Vol. ratio114.82.355115.22.1 (1dp)21223081.72.7 (1dp)312.251.519.561.33.1 (1dp)4151.52174.23.5 (1dp)514.751.251560 .44.0 (1dp)67.2515.324.34.6 (1dp)78.751.510.644.84.2 (1dp)89.751.514.549.53.4 (1dp)9151.832.590.82.8 (1dp)I found that the controlled temperature from which every reading should begin should be 70à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, and that each measurements of temperature should be taken every 15 seconds.Apparatus list:The following apparatus will be required, to be used in the experiment:* Supply of heated water* Six different test tubes of sufficiently varying surface area / volume ratios.* Test tube rack* Stopwatch* ThermometerPlan:Firstly, all apparatus required will be organised and arranged in the area in which the experiment will take place. The six test tubes will be taken one at a time, starting with the test tube numbered 1, and finishing with test tube 6. Test tube 1 will be taken, a thermometer placed in it, and filled with boiling water taken directly from a kettle. The test tube will be placed in a test tube rack, and the stopwatch switched on when the temperature of the water reduces to 70à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C. Continuous measurements of temperature of the water will be taken every 15 seconds, until 150 seconds (10 measurements) have been completed. The test tube will be thoroughly cleaned and dried, and the procedure repeated twice more for test tube 1. The entire experiment will be repeated for test tubes 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, taking 3 results for each different test tube.Resources Used:RESOURCE 1:Text Book: Coordinated Science Biology by Jones ; JonesRESOURCE 2:Text Book: Physics Study Guide by Palfreyman ; MaunderRESOURCE 3:Information sheet: Temperature regulation in mammals and birdsRESOURCE 4:Text Book: Higher GCSE Mathematics by D.RaynerResults:Below shows the averages taken for temperature of the test tubes at the given time intervals:FOR RAW DATA TAKEN FROM THE EXPERIMENT, please see attached sheet 1.Graphical Results:Firstly, time (secs.) was plotted against temperature (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C), in order to get a basic graphical result of the temperature of each test tube a t every time interval. Then, in order to find how the shape and size (SA / Volume ratio) of a test tube affects the rate of temperature loss away from the test tube, a second graph was plotted (showing SA / Volume ratio against rate of heat loss). The rate of heat loss away from the model was found by drawing a tangent to the midpoint (75 seconds) of each line on the first graph. Then, the rate was calculated by dividing the change in temperature by the time taken for the change.FOR BOTH OF THE GRAPHS DRAWN, please see attached sheet 2.Conclusion:From the results shown above, and the graphs, I conclude that the initial prediction, that the larger the surface area / volume ratio of a model, the greater the rate of heat loss away from the simulation will be is correct. The predicted graphs are very similar to those produced from the actual experiment, and this shows that the prediction was very precise. From the graphs, it is clear that as the surface area / volume ratio of a model in creases, so too does the average rate of heat loss away from the model (the amount of heat that can be lost every second). This is because the graph produced was linear, proving that:Surface area / volume ratio average rate of heat lossThe graph is almost certainly a straight line, because there is no indication that it may be a curve of any form. Although this may be true for the range of surface area / volume ratios used, there is no evidence to suggest that the direct proportionality between the input and output variables will continue forever. One would think logically, that there must be a limit to the amount of heat that can be lost from a model / a real mammal or bird at one given time. Therefore, the rate of heat loss away from the test tube must come to a maximum at one point. This would suggest that however large the surface area, and however small the volume of any model or organism, the amount of heat that can be lost at any given time (the rate) has a limit.Evaluation:O verall, I believe that the results obtained were fairly inaccurate in the experiment conducted. This is because the problems brought about in such an experiment that would have led to inaccuracies of results were found to be vast:* Firstly, the temperature of the water measured at each point was relatively inaccurate. This was due to the fact that the temperature recorded was limited by the accuracy of the thermometer used (accurate to 1à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C on the scale), and by the accuracy of the person conducting the experiment (in this case, myself). Furthermore, the temperature of the water in each test tube was not constant throughout, and any movement of the thermometer (or the whole test tube) would have shown an inaccurate measurement on the thermometer. Also, the accuracy of the recordings obtained was hindered by the fact that the thermometers were not digital, but were analogue, and prone to inaccuracies.* Furthermore, each test tube was held upright in a test tube rack. This w as in order to measure the temperature of the water at the specified time intervals, but would have caused inaccuracies with the amount of the test tube in contact with another object (affecting the heat loss away from the test tube). This was consistent throughout the experiment, however, except when larger test tube racks were used to support the bigger test tubes that could not fit into the same rack as the other test tubes.* Also, a thermometer was submerged in each test tube, to measure the temperature of the water. This may have brought about minor inaccuracies in the results, as the presence of the thermometer displaced water that would have been in the test tube without the thermometer being present. Again, this was consistent throughout the experiment, so it would not have affected the reliability of the experiment (if it were to be repeated).Furthermore, the procedure had a few problematic areas, mainly concerning the controlled variables:* The temperature of the situation was not kept constant throughout the experiment, and could not feasibly be kept constant. The temperature of the heated laboratory is unlikely to have changed drastically enough to affect the results on ONE occasion, but the experiment took approximately 2 hours to complete over 3 different sittings. Therefore, it may be possible that the temperature of the laboratory was different on these occasions, and the results would have been affected.* The thermometer used was again, different on each of these three sittings, and this fact may have affected the results, but to what extent is difficult to define. The type of thermometer used was the same on each occasion, but the actual one was different.* The movement of the thermometer / test tube proved also to be difficult to control. With 26 other people trying to conduct their experiments at the same time, movement of the bench would have inevitably occurred. However, it is unlikely that such movement would have affected the results d rastically.The line of best fit found on the second graph produced, indicates that some results were not as expected. This can be investigated by calculating the percentage discrepancy of the points that were not on the line of best fit, as follows:% Discrepancy = [(value plotted value on line) / value on line] x 100The percentage discrepancy of each point was found, from the line of best fit:Point(SA / VOLUME ratio)% Discrepancy from line of best fit1) 2.1= [(0.063 0.061)/0.061] x 100 = 3.8%2) 2.7= [(0.084 0.077)/0.077] x 100 = 9.1%3) 3.1= [(0.079 0.088)/0.088] x 100 = 10.2%4) 3.5= [(0.093 0.098)/0.098] x 100 = 5.1%5) 4.0= [(0.1 0.111)/0.111] x 100 = 10.0%6) 4.6= [(0.14 0.137)/0.137] x 100 = 2.2%This indicates that all of the results are within 10.2% agreement with the line of best fit, suggesting that the data obtained is relatively inaccurate. The discrepancies, as stated previously, could have come from the inaccuracies of human error, the inaccuracies of the thermometer, or the inaccuracies of the controlled variables problems.Although the readings have been found to be relatively inaccurate, I believe that the evidence collected was quite reliable. Obtaining 3 results for each SA / volume ratio of test tube made it possible to identify anomalous results, of which there seem to be 4 (highlighted grey on the above table). These anomalous results can be attributed to human error, movement of the test tube, and inaccuracies of the thermometers used. These anomalous results were averages of each of the 3 readings for every test tube, and were plotted on the first graph. The fact that the rates plotted on the second graph were up to 10.2% away from the line of best fit indicates that these anomalies may have contributed to the inaccuracies.Therefore, I believe that although inaccuracies found were vast, the evidence obtained is reliable enough to support a firm conclusion. This is because even though the results were inaccurate, the inaccuracies were co nsistent throughout, meaning that the overall outcome of the experiment was correct (although the actual readings may not have been).In order to improve the accuracy of the evidence further, the following changes could be made to the overall experiment:* Electronic temperature sensors, and precise data logging could have been used to measure the exact temperature at the given time intervals.* Electronic measuring devices could also have been used to measure the exact rate of heat loss away from the model in each case. This is instead of drawing a tangent to each line on the first graph (to find the rate), which is a relatively inaccurate method.* The experiment could have been completed in an isolated area (where the movements of others would not have affected the results).To extend the experiment with new lines of enquiry, I could investigate how the volume of used water in one test tube affects the heat loss away from the model. Furthermore, I could experiment with real organisms, to investigate how heat loss away from their bodies is affected by different factors (such as external temperature etc.).

Soil Sampling essays

Soil Sampling essays These instructions are for taking a soil sample from a yard, pasture, or any other piece of land. The purpose of a soil sample is to determine the pH of the soil. These instructions give a simple step by step procedure that anyone can do. Anyone who is trying to grow something can use a soil sample to help them get the best growth for whatever they are planting. The reason for needing to read these instructions is so that a proper sample will be taken so you will get the best results for your soil. There are not a lot of materials and equipment needed to take a soil sample. You are going to need the area of soil to be sampled, a soil sample bag, a small shovel or other digging tool, a measuring cup (optional), a bucket, and a pen or pencil. A soil sample bag is the bag that you will put your sample in. It can be obtained from fertilizer dealers, the Soil Conservation Service, your local Soil Conservation Service, or the Stephen F. Austin Agriculture Department. Samples usually cost about ten dollars and take about a month to get the results back, so plan ahead. shovels buckets soil sample bag CAUTION: Do not take samples from different fields or areas and put in the same bag. This may cause you to get the wrong results for a specific area. This does not apply to your yard. One sample is OK in this case. This comes in to play if you are sampling different spots over a large area, say over twenty acres. WARNING: Do not stab shovel into your foot, this may cause injury to your toes or other parts of your foot. Choose an area where you want to have the soil tested before you plant something on it. Obtain a soil sample bag from one of the places listed above. Choose 5 to 15 spots in your area to take samples from. At each of the spots you chose in your area use your digging devic ...

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR MANAGEMENT Research Paper

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR MANAGEMENT - Research Paper Example However, if we analyze the number of cars that travel the road 3-6, we can see that despite the street’s ability to accept 7 thousand cars, there are only 6. The same situation happens on the road 4-8, whose capacity is 8, but it accepts 4 thousand. In total, such difference of both roads gives us the lack of 1+4 = 5 thousands. This means that genuine maximum number of cars that may actually travel from the stadium to the interstate per hour is 33–5 = 28 thousands. These calculations can be easily proved with the help of special statistical program. Hence, QM for Windows gives the following results: The maximum network flow differs from the forecast of Dr. Lee because a member of the University Planning Committee has not taken into account traffic jams and traffic delays. Due to imperfect distribution of cars among the streets, not all roads are taken by the exact number of cars that such streets are able to accept. For instance, the capacity of the road 1-2 is 12000 meanwhile 15000 cars travel by this route. This mismatch will cause traffic jams and the waste of time. These 3000 cars could easily travel by the road 1-4 without jamming, which capacity allows additional flow of cars. 2. If the cost for expanding a street were the same for each street, which street(s) would you recommend expanding to increase the capacity to 33,000? Which streets would you recommend expanding to get the total capacity of the system to 35,000 per hour? In case the price for expanding a street is equal for every road, in order to reach the capacity of 33000 cars, I would recommend expanding the road 1-4 so that it could accept 9000 instead of 6000 cars and the road 1-3, which number of cars would increase from 12000 to 14000. In addition, it is essential to expand any or both streets 6-8 and 7-8 because, taking into account that a node 8 can be reached by three roads,

TIS Reflective Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

TIS Reflective Report - Essay Example The second concept is while the ideology of supply chains is crucial to the success of any business, few firms have paid less attention to this and in turn they have limited this concept to the supply chain that take place within the four corners of their business. Consequently, this has led to disjointed and inefficient supply chains. From the tutorial, analysis of Wal-Mart Chain Supply Management System was carried out also with consideration of the enterprise. The learning brought out the implementation to US. The research methods that were used brought out the plans that the supply system has used to ensure that goals are attained. In the research, more could be done to bring out the effect of the supply chain on the consumers, the impact of the supply chain to other competitors. Improvement of the supply chain was also not learned and is an important aspect in the supply chain management. There are lessons that were learned from the learning style. From the research that was carried, it was learned that there is need to become information literate. In order for one to carry out an effective research, there is need to use effective information technology and other techniques that one is good at. Research skills also entail reading of complicated texts and bringing them to an individual’s understanding. One may think that there is no difficulty in reading but in carrying out a research, there is need to properly analyse the texts that one reads. General sources are not always needed in research as was brought out. In the research, general sources do not give out the expected results and data that are needed for analysis. They are mainly used in gaining of context. The research brought out the importance of what to use in referencing. In referencing, there is need for aiming on the credibility of sources basing on the requirements that are needed in the research. Referencing in this way will