Meralco’s Pricing: an Assessment

I. Introduction Meralco is a natural monopoly. Natural monopoly exists when a firm is able to supply the total market demand more efficiently because of economies of scale that allow the firm to lower its cost as it expands capacity. However, like any firm in a market situation where there is imperfect competition or in a less-than-competitive market, a natural-monopoly firm, when left to its own, tends to limit its output to a point where its marginal cost equals its marginal revenue but charge a much higher price than what would have prevailed when there is a highly-competitive market.In a highly-competitive market, the output tends to settle at a point where marginal cost equals marginal revenue, which also equals its price and where the unit cost of production is the lowest possible because of competition. When the price is greater than unit cost and profits are high, more firms will come to compete in the market and drive down the price back to where it is just equal to unit cos t. When the price is below unit cost, the resulting losses will drive out some of the firm from the market, thus raising the price back again to where it is just equal to the unit cost of producing the product concerned.Because a natural monopoly, like any firm in an imperfect market, charges a price way above the equality of marginal cost and marginal revenue, it also produces at a certain level of output that is less than what would have prevailed when the market is highly competitive. These twin evils (higher price than necessary and lower output than possible), which arise from the presence of a monopoly, make for a very strong case for government intervention. In line with this, the researchers ought to know if Meralco has really an absolute control over the output produced and therefore charge the highest price to increase their profit.They also want to know the basis of pricing per kilowatt hour (kWh) and how do they implemented this to their consumer. II. Methodology The des criptive research method was used in this research, as it points out conditions and relationships that exist or do not exist. Furthermore, this method emphasizes more on descriptions rather than on judgments or interpretations. Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions and degree in detail of the present situation. (Landman, 1998:59)Descriptive data for research are collected by using different methods. It may be presented qualitatively or in verbal forms or symbols, or quantitatively in mathematical symbols, depending upon the nature of the material and the purposes for which one is doing research. III. Respondents of the study The respondents of this study consisted of Meralco consumers and some people from the Department of Energy (DOE). The above-mentioned respondents qualified to the most needed criteria of the researchers, who were currently situated at the survey site. IV.Discussion A. Overview of Mono poly A. 1 Definition of monopoly Pure monopoly exists when a single firm is the sole producer of a product for which there are no close substitutes. A. 2 Characteristics of Monopoly Here are the main characteristics of pure monopoly: a. Single seller. A pure, or absolute, monopoly is an industryin which a single firm is the sole producer of aspecific good or the sole supplier of a service; thefirm and the industry are synonymous. b. No close substitutes. A pure monopoly’s product isunique in that there are no close substitutes.Theconsumer who chooses not to buy the monopolized product must do without it. c. Price maker. The pure monopolist controls the totalquantity supplied and thus has considerable controlover price; it is a price maker (unlike a pure competitor,which has no such control and therefore is a pricetaker). The pure monopolist confronts the usualdownward-sloping product demand curve. It canchange its product price by changing the quantity ofthe product it produc es. The monopolist will use thispower whenever it is advantageous to do so. d. Blocked entry.A pure monopolist has no immediatecompetitors because certain barriers keep potentialcompetitors from entering the industry. Those barriers may be economic, technological, legal, or ofsome other type. But entry is totally blocked in puremonopoly. e. Nonprice competition. The product produced by a puremonopolist may be either standardized (as with naturalgas and electricity)or differentiated (aswith Windows orFrisbees). Monopolists that have standardized products engage mainly in public relationsadvertising, whereas those with differentiated productssometimes advertise their products’ attributes.B. Meralco and Pricing The  Manila Electric Company  ,also known as  MERALCO  , is the Philippines' largest distributor of electrical power. The word MERALCO, is an  acronym  for  Manila  Electric  Railroad  And  Light  Company, which was the company's original name from 1903 to 1919. MERALCO is the  Metro Manila's only electric power distributor and holds the power distribution franchise for some 22 cities and 89 municipalities, including the whole of  Metro Manila  and  Mega Manila  region. B. 1 Retail price compositionIEC confirmed that the main component or 65 percent of the average of Meralco’s retail pricing is the generation charge. Charges by independent power producers comprised 44 percent, National Power Corp. ’s transmission billing was 35 percent, spot market pricing was 13 percent, and the ancillary service charge was 8 percent. The table below shows the composition of the total of retail price charged to consumers: IEC also estimated that the embedded fuel costs comprised approximately 50 percent of the total generation charge, while the transmission charge comprised 9 percent of the average tariff.VAT and other taxes and statutory charges comprised 10 percent. Lastly, the distribution charge, which is the only part of electricity billing that goes to Meralco, comprised 16 percent of the average tariff. All other charges were thus collected by Meralco on behalf of third parties. B. 2 Price as Compared to other Countries IEC conducted a detailed survey and analysis of retail electricity tariffs and costs in 13 countries and two U. S. states, as well as a supplementary, less comprehensive â€Å"meta-analysis â€Å" of 27 countries in the Euro area and the 50 remaining U. S. states.The 15 core markets in the survey included Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea, Taiwan, Japan (Kansai), Hong Kong, Singapore, Australia (WA), Sri Lanka, NZ, California (PG;E), Hawaii, Canada (Ontario) and South Africa. For each of the core markets, retail tariffs were calculated for residential, commercial and industrial customers. IEC enumerated seven factors behind Meralco’s pricing as compared to other countries: subsidies, high intrinsic cost of supply, import-parity fuel, grid size/plant mix, higher financing cost, geographical challenges and cross-subsidy in transmission rates.Surprisingly, a number of countries in the study like Korea and Taiwan have electricity prices that are lower than Meralco’s because of government policies that provide subsidies of up to 50 percent. The subsidies come in the varied form of frozen tariffs, sale of fuel to utilities at below market rates, and utility losses shouldered by the government. IEC noted that Meralco’s estimated cost of supply was in the top quintile (9th highest and 19 percent above the average) among the 44 markets surveyed.The cost of producing and delivering electricity in Luzon (and in the Philippines, more generally), it seems, was intrinsically high largely because of the high price of imported fossil fuel. Interestingly, IEC also pointed to the relatively small grid size, geographic challenges of transmission and higher cost of financing costs as reasons for high intrinsic cost of electricity that Mer alco sells. If fact, IEC noted that eight of the 10 highest cost markets in the survey are island nation/states, and this factor may be a fundamental cost multiplier.Because 80 percent of power generation in Luzon was fuelled with imported fuels, electricity prices are expected to remain high. This is the reality of a country that is dependent on imported fuels. Also, the Luzon grid size is smaller and therefore had a high dependence on hydro which requires a higher reserve margin requirement. The weighted average cost of capital in the Philippine power sector is higher than most countries in the region. Debt cost is relatively high and loan tenors are shorter. Transmission costs are also inherently high as power has to be transmitted across several islands.Lastly, the higher cost of transmission to consumers in the Visayas is subsidized by consumers in the Luzon grid. A study conducted by the company and commissioned by Meralco found that at the beginning of 2012 the Philippines ha d the 2nd highest electricity rates in the region and the 9th highest out of 44 international markets. In the study, which was standardized for type of customer, time period, currency price and resource rates, he came to a number of conclusions about why consumer electricity rates in the Philippines are relatively high for the region and internationally.Several of the issues don't seem to have a near term solution in sight. 1. The government doesn't subsidize energy. The main reason prices are likely to stay high is the Philippines can't afford to subsidize its electricity as other countries in the region do,3/4 of the reason energy costs are high is because the government doesn't apply subsidies to keep tariffs artificially low. Several neighboring countries — Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Korea and Taiwan — all have lower tariffs because of government subsidies.He said up to and sometimes over 50% of costs in these countries are subsidized since government policies freeze tariffs, sell fuel at below market rates and make government shoulder business losses. 2. It's expensive to produce energy in the Philippines. Philippine power generation relies largely on imported fuel pegged to high international fuel prices, The country is making efforts to explore more of its own natural gas resources, but finding deposits and setting up production facilities will take years. In the meantime, the country is reliant on high cost international fuel. 3. Challenging geography.Because the Philippines is made up of thousands of islands, it does not have a unified electricity grid and there are several providers. â€Å"In principle,† said Morris, â€Å"the bigger the grid the cheaper the cost† which can be spread out among more customers. However he thought that creating a unified grid in the Philippines would be problematic given the terrain. He noted that transmission costs are more expensive because power has to be sent across several islands. I EC found that 8 of the 10 highest cost markets in the survey were island nations or states, which could be a â€Å"fundamental cost multiplier. He said, â€Å"It is expensive to make electricity, transmit it and distribute it in this country†¦ I can't see that problem changing in the next 20 years. † 4. Ineffective plants. He pointed out that when some plants don't work well, it is necessary to have a reserve plant, which means additional costs. â€Å"The higher your reserve margin the higher the total cost of supply,† he said. He added that the reserve margin of the Philippines was probably around 20% but should actually be between 33% to 35% since the country has had brownouts in the last year, which he said â€Å"means you don't have enough capacity to meet reliable demand.C. Government’s Intervention to Pricing Natural monopolies traditionally have been subject to rate regulation (price regulation), although the recent trend has been to deregulate whe rever competition seems possible. For example, long-distance telephone calls, natural gas distribution, wireless communications, cable television, and long-distance electricity transmission have been, to one degree or another, deregulated over the past several decades. And regulators in some states are beginning to allow new entrants to compete with existing local telephone and electricity providers.Nevertheless, state and local regulatory commissions still regulate the prices that most local natural gas distributors, regional telephone companies, and local electricity suppliers can charge. These locally regulated monopolies are commonly called â€Å"public utilities. † Meralco as Regulated Monopoly Meralco is a publicly owned and listed company, meaning that anyone can share in the potential price appreciation of its shares and can receive a portion of company profits when dividends are declared. This company is a public utility, which means it has a monopoly in the delivery of service to the public.In return for the benefits of not having any competition, the government regulates how much profit the company can make. Normally, the regulated price that it sells its services to the public depends on the rate of return or profit the company will make and that is controlled by the government. In theory, without government regulation, Meralco could charge whatever price it wanted and the public would have no choice but to pay or not have electric service. But Meralco prices are under government control.Therefore, the government has an obligation to keep the price charged as low as possible to serve the best public interests while, at the same time, allow enough return to keep the company financially sound, able to expand and enhance company business interests and allow the shareholders to make money on their investment. V. Conclusion A public utility must serve both the public interest and the interest of its investors. However, because of the government c ontrol of pricing, it is the absolute obligation of government regulators to protect and serve the public interest.It is not the job of the Meralco management to protect the public. That is the government’s job. It is not the job of government to protect the Meralco shareholders. That is the management’s job. Then, after the regulations are set, it is management’s responsibility to protect shareholder interests within the boundaries that the regulators establish. If we were the shareholder of Meralco, we want the company to charge P50 per kilowatt-hour so my company can make a lot of profit. As a consumer, we want the government to keep electricity prices as low as possible while insuring reliable service.Any reasonable person can see that there can be an inherent conflict of interest in those two positions. That is why public utilities function best when privately owned and operated and regulated by the government. VI. References 1. http://rp1. abs-cbnnews. com /views-and-analysis/05/29/08/meralco-what-issue-really-john-mangun 2. http://www. rappler. com/business/10737-electricity-prices-in-ph-likely-to-stay-high-in-the-short-term 3. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Meralco 4. http://www. bizlinksphilippines. net/102312. htmlPolytechnic University of the Philippines College of Accountancy Sta. Mesa, Manila Meralco’s Pricing: An Assessment ECON 2023 Submitted to: Submitted By: Janine Simbulan Christian Derrick Villafranca Ma. Margarita Matawaran Jemilyn Milan Table of Contents I. Introduction II. Methodology III. Discussion A. Overview of the Monopoly a. 1 Definition of the Monopoly a. 2 Characteristics of Monopoly B. Meralco and Pricing b. 1 Retail price composition b. 2 Price as compared to other countries D. Government’s intervention to Pricing IV. Refenrences

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Naturopathic Medicines over Pharmaceutical Medications Essay Example for Free

Naturopathic Medicines over Pharmaceutical Medications Essay For World Health Organization (WHO), health of an individual is not only means of getting rid of physical illness or pain but involves complete mental and social wellbeing of an individual. It is muti-dimensional and involves various aspects including social environment of a person or a society. Still eighty per cent of people are heard complaining about one or the other health problems and only one percent of people are in according to the WHO definition really healthy. Among several factors, it’s the departure of the people from our age-old system of naturopathic treatment towards hyped Pharmaceutical Industry – a product of Industrial revolution. Dr. Mathias Rath, a German-based advocate of patients’ rights and author of the book, â€Å"Why Animals Don’t Get Heart Attacks-But People Do†, rightly said, â€Å"There is an entire industry with an innate economic interest to obstruct, suppress and discredit any information about the eradication of diseases†. (Faseyin, 2004) He condemned millions of people who are eager to pay billions of dollars to the pharmaceutical industry for medicines that never cure rather kills. Pharmaceutical industry is earning more than one trillion dollars by selling drugs promising cure of various diseases and are being marketed at a cost more than 55,000 percent of the raw materials, bringing profit to the whole pharmaceutical industry and the people attached to it but without any concern to the health of the people. These drugs are merely removing symptoms instead of curing. As a result, more people are finding themselves facing deathbeds even from the preventable diseases. For e.g. few centuries back, James Lind had found that deficiency of vitamin C can cause blood loss and scurvy but still pharmaceutical industries dealing with medicines promising the cure of cardiovascular diseases are not supplying this information. The official RDA for vitamin C set at 60 mg is also not enough to prevent the disease. And the reason is the attitude of the pharmaceutical industry that looks at the cost effectiveness of the medicines rather than the health of the citizens; naturally they find vitamin C as an unprofitable venture for the pharmaceutical industry. Allopathic medicines can cure acute illnesses very effectively and pharmaceuticals and artificial respiration has also saved lives of millions.   But if we count the side effects, these are more than the actual benefits. Several cases have come to light when patients have suffered from pneumonia and acute physical dysfunction arising from the continuous use of steroid medication. Patients can also lose normal intestinal flora and can develop acute digestive problems. Nature has bounteous wealth of healing powers in its lap, which our ancient healers had fruitfully utilized, to the advantage of the patients. Naturopathic medicines go deep into cleaning of our immune system, healing hormonal, nervous systems and detoxifying them and eliminating diseases from its roots thus taking care of patient’s complete health. Medieval Jewish writer, Maimonides reflected Plato’s concept of health, when he said, â€Å"The cure of many diseases is unkown to the physicians†¦ because they are ignorant of the whole (body and soul) which ought to be studied also; for the part can never be well, unless the whole is well. For all good and evil, whether in the body or in the human nature originates†¦ in the soul, and overflows from thence†¦ and therefore if the head and body are to be well, you must begin by curing the soul; that is the first thing.† (Vaux Stenberg 2002) Underlying principles of healing on which the naturopathic medicine is based makes it different from all other medical approaches. Naturopathic doctors take the individual’s biochemistry, biomechanics, and emotional predispositions into account while prescribing medicines.   The body’s self-healing takes into consideration various aspects of body control and strive to maintain the biological balance of the body, which is a very crucial aspect of a healthy body. The holistic or naturopathic way of healing works in combination of best scientific diagnosis methods and monitoring techniques with both ancient and innovative health promotion methods. These methods involve use of natural diet and herbal remedies, nutritional supplements, exercises, relaxation, psycho-spiritual counseling, meditation, breathing exercises, and other self-regulatory practices taking into consideration history of patient’s health and his current life including family, job, and religious life and believes in basic concept that food and nutritional supplements are the best medicine. It focuses on prevention of diseases, maintaining high-level wellness and longevity. Besides, naturopathy beckons patients to be an active participant in his or her own healing process, rather than merely becoming a passive recipient of treatment. Naturopathy deals with specific individual needs, and involves in healing process of body, mind and soul. It is quite true that to understand about the illness, knowing about mere physical symptoms are not enough but emotional aspects of patient should also taken care of. Therefore naturopathic treatment is also called as a science of life as it regulates and maintains chemical activities in the brain, controls rhythm of heart, blood pressure, resistance power of skin and other functions inside our body.   It helps persons to overcome anxiety, depression, irritability, improve memory, create emotional stability, and proves to be a healing power for our old traumatic experiences and over and above rejuvenates our lives by giving us energy and vitality. There are several herbs that have multiple uses for human body. People have been growing herbs since centuries and their medicinal properties even challenge the practitioners of medicines of today. Our ancestors were growing the herb plants in their homes. Many evidences have come to light, which show that early settlers had grown herbs like parsley, anise, pennyroyal, sorrel, watercress, liverwort, wild leeks, and lavender across America and in other parts of the world also. They are still grown in many houses all over America and their proper use can relieve the patients from number of diseases. They are many more herbs like ginger, which reduces the chances of heart attack and act as a protective cover for heart and blood vessels. (Naturals Herbs Guide Online) In 1983, World Health Organization suggested to incorporate naturopathic medicine in conventional health care systems. In 1994, Bastyr University of Natural Health Sciences, received grant of   $1 million funds from the National Institutes of Health’s Office of Alternative Medicine to facilitate the research for alternative therapies to cure the patients affected with HIV and AIDS. The diet for cancer patients recommended by the National Cancer Institute was first published in a naturopathic medical textbook in the 1940s. Government of Germany has made it mandatory for conventional doctors and pharmaceuticals also to undergo formal training in naturopathic techniques, as they are cost-effective. (Morton Morton 1997) Graduates of naturopathic colleges have to put in more hours of study in basic and clinical science than their counterparts in Yale or Stanford medical schools and they receive more training in therapeutic nutrition than Md.’s, osteopathic physicians, or registered dietitians. In United States alone, there are more than one thousand licensed naturopathic physicians and many provinces of Canada also issue licenses to naturopathic doctors as primary care physicians and it is expected that by the end of 2010, all fifty states will start issuing licenses to naturopathic physicians. (Alan Morton, Marry Morton 1997) There are many more healing techniques like Chiropractic, Ayurvedic Medicine, Therapeutic Massage, Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)/ Chinese Medicine, Acupuncture, Acupressure, Atlas Orthogonal, Chelation Therapy, Colonics, Psychotherapy/Counseling, Movement Therapies/ Dance, Holistic Dentistry, Ear Candling- Ear Candling/ Ear Coning/ Thermal-Auricular, Feng Shui, Flower Essences (Bach Flower Remedy), Herbalism, Hypnotherapy, Lymph Drainage Therapy, Ohashiatsu and Vitamin Therapy, whose basic principles and remedies lie in the various ingredients found in the nature. So why not fully utilize what the nature has given to us as only with the healthy body, there is healthy mind and only healthy mind can lead the world towards healthy living. REFERENCE LIST Faseyin A.Y.   2004. The Pharmaceutical Cartel: A Tool for Genocide. Retrieved on February 10, 2008 from W.W.W: http://newafrikanvodun.com/pharm.html. Grout M.M. Allopathic Medicine. Retrieved on February 10, 2008 from W.W.W: http://www.crossroadsclinic.net/articles/allopathic_medicine.html Morton M. A. Morton M. 1997. Naturopathic Medicine. Retrieved on February 26, 2008 from W.W.W: http://www.healthy.net/asp/templates/article.asp?PageType=ArticleID=508 NaturalHerbsGuide.com. Natural Herbs, Herbal Remedies, Medicines, and Supplements Guide. Retrieved on February 26, 2008 from W.W.W: http://www.naturalherbsguide.com/ Vaux K.L. and Stenberg M. 2002. Covenants of Life: Contemporary Medical Ethics in Light of the thought of Paul Ramsay. USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Supply Chain Use Case Analysis Essay Example for Free

Supply Chain Use Case Analysis Essay The final assignment for the course is a Final Paper on two cases. The Final Paper should demonstrate understanding of the reading as well as the implications of new knowledge. The eight- to ten-page paper should integrate readings and course discussions into work and life experiences. It may include an explanation and examples from previous experiences as well as implications for future applications. Read the case study at the end of Chapter 15 and the case study at the end of Chapter 16, and thoroughly answer all the following questions. Supplement your answers with scholarly research using the Ashford Online Library. Each case study should be addressed in four to five pages, resulting in a combined Final Paper of eight to ten pages. Chapter 15 Case Study: The Realco Breadmaster 1. Develop a master production schedule for the breadmaker. What do the projected ending inventory and available-to-promise numbers look like? Has Realco â€Å"overpromised†? In your view, should Realco update either the forecast or the production numbers? 2. Comment on Jack’s approach to order promising. What are the advantages? The disadvantages? How would formal master scheduling improve this process? What organizational changes would be required? 3. Following up on Question 2, which do you think is worse, refusing a customer’s order upfront because you don’t have the units available or accepting the order and then failing to deliver? What are the implications  for master scheduling? 4. Suppose Realco produces 20,000 breadmakers every week, rather than 40,000 every other week. According to the master schedule record, what impact would this have on average inventory levels? Chapter 16 Case Study: A Bump https://bitly.com/12C3yhI It is important to remember that college is not all about studying. College is a significant step into adulthood and should be treated as such. While you should not party the night away, do not keep your nose in your books to the point that you do not get to enjoy this time of your life. Business General Business Focus of the Final Paper The final assignment for the course is a Final Paper on two cases. The Final Paper should demonstrate understanding of the reading as well as the implications of new knowledge. The eight- to ten-page paper should integrate readings and course discussions into work and life experiences. It may include an explanation and examples from previous experiences as well as implications for future applications. Read the case study at the end of Chapter 15 and the case study at the end of Chapter 16, and thoroughly answer all the following questions. Supplement your answers with scholarly research using the Ashford Online Library. Each case study should be addressed in four to five pages, resulting in a combined Final Paper of eight to ten pages. Chapter 15 Case Study: The Realco Breadmaster 1. Develop a master production schedule for the breadmaker. What do the projected ending inventory and available-to-promise numbers look like? Has  Realco â€Å"overpromised†? In your view, should Realco update either the forecast or the production numbers? 2. Comment on Jack’s approach to order promising. What are the advantages? The disadvantages? How would formal master scheduling improve this process? What organizational changes would be required? 3. Following up on Question 2, which do you think is worse, refusing a customer’s order upfront because you don’t have the units available or accepting the order and then failing to deliver? What are the implications for master scheduling? 4. Suppose Realco produces 20,000 breadmakers every week, rather than 40,000 every other week. According to the master schedule record, what impact would this have on average inventory levels?

From a social psychological point of view

From a social psychological point of view Group behaviour (how the individual affects a group and vice-versa) has been widely studied in social psychology but has been hard to theorise (Brown, 2007). Within social psychology there are many social psychological perspectives that have used different theoretical frameworks to study group behaviour. Although each perspective is in agreement that social categorisation (the way an individual and others are classified part of the same or different social groups) and social identity (the way that being part of a social group can give individuals a sense of self) are important in group membership (Phoenix, 2007), the way they are both treated in each perspective varies. This essay will show this by using the cognitive social perspective (namely the social identity theory-SIT) and the critical discursive perspective and explain their ontological assumptions and different approaches to social categorisation and social identity. This essay will argue that from a social psychological poi nt of view, group membership is not primarily a cognitive matter. It will also argue that social and individual sides of group membership should not be seen as dichotomies but as interactive, dynamic and influenced by power relations. The cognitive social approach has an ontological assumption that people are information processing individuals (Hollway, 2007) whose thought processes are shaped by and create the world that they live in (The Open University, DVD 1, 2007). There are many different traditions within this approach, although this essay will concentrate on the social identity tradition. The social identity tradition was designed to break away from previous cognitive miser traditions of the approach that assumed that the social was just something that affected the individual (Brown, 2007). Although it shared the same ontological assumption as the cognitive miser tradition and assumed that individuals had limited and fixed cognitive mechanisms (Dixon, 2007), it also differed from it because it saw individuals as socialised thinkers where group membership played a part in structuring the individuals thoughts (The Open University, DVD 1 2007). The social identity tradition led Tajfel and Turner (1979, cited in Brown, 2007) to develop the social identity theory (SIT). SIT attempted to use a combined social and cognitive approach to studying inter-group relations; it saw the social as more than just something that affects individuals. It attempted to find out how people identified with groups and how this affected their judgements (Brown, 2007). SIT explained how group membership and inter-group relations are based on self categorisation, social comparison and the construction of a shared self definition (Brown, 2007). SIT is currently one of the leading theories in group processes; although this has led to power relations where group identification is still seen as mostly a cognitive process. The focus on cognitive mechanisms also stresses that group processes are still seen as individualistic and so misses out a lot of the influence that society has on the individual or group. In contrast to SIT, the critical discursive perspective argues that discourse and social practices are what make up an individual and their social world; individuals are seen as socially constructed, continent and situated (The Open University, DVD 1, 2007). Unlike SIT that studies how cognitive mechanisms allow an individual to identify with a group; the critical discursive perspective looks at how groups and group identities are created by the individual through discourse and the different ways that these groups are dynamic, flexible and changeable. Categorisation is therefore seen as an active and out there rather than a process that is internal (Brown, 2007). Akin to the cognitive social perspective, there are different approaches in the critical discursive perspective, for example, some researchers accept the reality of given categories (Billig, 2002, cited in Brown, 2007) whilst others argue that categories are socially constructed (Potter and Reicher, 1987, cited in Phoenix, 2 007). Power relations also blight the critical discursive perspective as discourses can be interpreted differently and each discourse available within each culture is politically and ideologically constructed. But, the critical discursive perspective does go beyond the individual-society dualism to look at how the individual and social come together to construct groups. SIT and the critical discursive perspective see categorisation and group membership differently. SIT sees categorisation and group membership as distorted and individualistic. It was developed from Tajfels (1957, cited in Brown, 2007) early coin experiments which led him to conclude that by combining a continuous dimension of judgement (coin value) with a clear-cut category dimension (size difference) would resulted in a cognitive bias and therefore a faulty judgement within and between the categories. Tajfel (1959, cited in Brown, 2007) saw that this bias could be used to explain how individuals perceive others using cognitive variables, like intelligence, for the continuous dimension of judgement and social variables, like nationality, for the clear-cut category dimension. Like the coins, Tajfel (1959, cited in Brown, 2007) hypothesised that individuals would stereotype group members and exaggerate inter-group differences. Tajfel and Turner (1970, cited in Brown, 2007) undertook some minimal group experiments to test this hypothesis. These experiments were purely cognitive; there was no reason for the groups to dislike or be competitive towards each other and therefore this shows how the cognitive bias and distortion can occur. The groups were formed by dividing participants according to a random preference. Participants were asked to distribute money to one of two participants; they only knew of each others group membership. Like hypothesised, the participants tended to reward people who belong to the same group as themselves at the expense of those who belong to the rival group, even if this was at the expense of maximising their own groups profit. So, in SIT individuals categorise themselves and others into groups then identify with the groups that heighten their self esteem and then compare their group with other groups by contrasting the good things about their group to the bad things about the other groups (Brown, 2007). Tajfel and Turner (1969, cited in Brown, 2007) argued that if an individual identifies themselves as being part of a category and consider themselves as part of that category then they are part of that category. But, biases are inevitable in SIT because the categories an individual uses serve a purpose (to preserve self esteem). As the categories used in SIT are social, this means that where the individual lives can affect their categorisation mechanisms (Brown, 2007). For example, to heighten the individuals self esteem, the group the individual sees him/herself as having membership to have to select a relevant out-group to compare itself favourably with. The selection of this out-group depends on what is important to the society that the individual is living in at the time (Brown, 2007). Therefore group membership is created by categorisation, a cognitive mechanism, and the social merely interacts with this mechanism. So therefore SIT emphasises individual, internal processes of group membership and how group membership occurs is primarily a cognitive matter. The critical discursive perspective, however, sees categorisation and group membership as more as something individuals do through language in everyday interaction. This can be seen in the way that social categories are constructed in discourse, for example, Potter and Reicher (1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007) undertook discourse research using communities. They used the social categorisation theory as a basis for their research which argued that if an individual perceived themselves to be part of a group, they behaved as a stereotypical member of the group when with the group; their personality shifted from an individual emphasis to a social emphasis which would be reflected in their discourse. Potter and Reicher (1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007) analysed discourses of community that circulated after the St Pauls riot in Bristol in the 1980s and saw that and saw that many different discourses were given of the same event; they called these different versions community repertoires. In these different community repertoires they saw that the use of the term community and who was a member of this group was very fluid, inconsistent and flexible. The same account could construct the term community in different ways, for example, the police could be constructed as being part of the community (which makes the riot an intra-group conflict) or the police could be seen as outside of the community (which makes the riot an inter-group conflict). The community could also be seen as a reference to things like lifestyle or the local residents or even as another term for the black community (Potter and Reicher, 1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007). This approach sees groups in terms of individual and social relationships which move away from the individual-social dichotomies of the cognitive social approaches. Therefore group membership is created by discourse which is not a cognitive mechanism, so groups are constructed. So therefore the critical discursive perspective emphasises external, individual and societal processes of group membership and so how group membership occurs is not a cognitive matter. How SIT and the critical discursive perspective study prejudice can expand on how they each view group processes, how they see the individual and society and how they see power relations within group processes. SIT argues that categorisation encourages individuals to see the good in their in-group and compare it to the bad in the out-group which leads people to prejudiced thinking (Dixon, 2007). SIT recognises that there are social aspects of inter-group processes, like assimilation, but at the heart of SIT are the cognitive aspects of group processes (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). SIT suggests that individualistic cognitive mechanisms are the cause of prejudice and inter-group processes. Power relations also occur with SIT as its dominance may have affected how inter-group relations are viewed. The critical discursive perspective, however, argues that how individuals talk about groups and construct group identities is a better way to view the different ways that individuals categorise e ach day (Brown, 2007; DD307 Course Team, 2007). The critical discursive perspective takes into account how an individual uses discourses and how society is involved in inter-group processes (DD303 Course Team, 2007). The critical discursive perspective argues that how an individual makes sense of their reality is affected by their culturally available linguistic resources (Potter and Wetherell, 1987, cited in Dixon, 2007). In this approach, individuals can only categorise and form prejudice because their society shares a language which enables them to construct identities and social relations (Dixon, 2007). Power relations are created in this approach depending on the discourses used by individuals and groups to construct a reality that is of best interest to them (Cooper and Kaye, 2007). This approach does not believe that stereotypes are caused by cognitive mechanisms (Hamilton and Troiler. 1986, cited in Dixon, 2007) they believe that collective belief systems causes the conflicts seen between groups (Eidelson and Eidelson, 200 3, cited in Dixon, 2007). Billig (2002, cited in Brown, 2007) moved from SIT to the critical discursive perspective and began to find limitations within SIT. For example, he saw that SIT assumed that categories that individual used to self categorise were fixed, stable and universal, whereas he argued that the categories used in SIT for prejudice were culturally determined, active, flexible, dynamic and constructed through language so cannot be explained in terms of psychological processes. SIT also assumes that the way individuals identify with groups is to help their self esteem when Billig (2002, cited in Brown, 2007) argued that this could not provide an explanation of extreme hate or the motivation for violence, hate or bigotry. But there have also been criticisms with the critical discursive perspective approach to groups, for example, Dixon (2007) noted that it neglects emotion and cognition in favour of language details, this does not make sense to psychology which is about the mind. It would also be difficult to believe that strongly felt emotions are only social constructions through interaction with others via language. The critical social perspective also does not explain how new groups are formed, for example, Emos, nor can they explain social change. There must also be a cognitive process that produces discourse as that is where meaning comes from; it cannot only come from external discourse. SIT (representing cognitive social psychology) and critical discursive perspective have shown the extent to which group membership can be seen as primarily a cognitive matter from a social psychological point of view. SIT seems to rely on inner cognitive mechanisms for group membership whereas the critical discursive perspective seems to rely on outer constructions. As SIT suggests, the cognitive mechanisms of group membership seem to be important for understanding the world, although like the critical discursive perspective suggests, how categories are constructed using discourse processes are important for this understanding too. So therefore, from a social psychological point of view group membership is not primarily a cognitive matter, but instead group membership can be seen as both a combined cognitive and social matter. This essay has also shown that social and individual sides of group membership should not be seen as dichotomies but as dynamic, interactive and influenced by power relations. Word Count: 2157 (excluding title). Brown, S. D. (2007) Intergroup processes: Social Identity Theory in Langdridge, D. and Taylor, S. (2007) (eds) Critical readings in Social Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. DD307 Course Team (2007) DD307 Project Booklet in Horton-Salway, M. (2007) (ed), Social Psychology: Critical Perspectives on Self and Others, Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Dixon, J. (2007) Prejudice, conflict and conflict reduction in Hollway, W., Lucy, H. and Phoenix, A. (2007) (eds) Social Psychology Matters. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Hollway, W, (2007) Social psychology: past and present, in Hollway, W., Lucy, H. and Phoenix, A. (2007) (eds) Social Psychology Matters. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Phoenix, A. (2007) Intragroup processes: entitativity in Langfridge, D. and Taylor, S. (2007) eds Critical readings in Social Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. The Open University (2007) in Social Psychology: Critical Perspectives on Self and Others, DVD 1, DD307 (2007), The Open University.

Team Work Scenarios Essay -- Ethics Team Working Together Essays

Team Work Scenarios Learning Team Each team should respond in paragraph form to the questions that follow the scenarios presented below. Any disagreements or complications that occur within the team regarding the correct response should be noted in the Learning Team Reflection Worksheet for the week. SCENARIOS Duty-based (Deontological): 1. Donna was wrong for setting rules for the team without any input from Michael. He is not going to follow the rules if there was no buy-in on the rules. Donna and Michael should renegotiate the rules together and come up with a set of rules with which both are comfortable. If that doesn?t work, try to get another team member (or a member from another team) to mediate between the two. 2. Stephanie should not lie for her teammates. If ... Team Work Scenarios Essay -- Ethics Team Working Together Essays Team Work Scenarios Learning Team Each team should respond in paragraph form to the questions that follow the scenarios presented below. Any disagreements or complications that occur within the team regarding the correct response should be noted in the Learning Team Reflection Worksheet for the week. SCENARIOS Duty-based (Deontological): 1. Donna was wrong for setting rules for the team without any input from Michael. He is not going to follow the rules if there was no buy-in on the rules. Donna and Michael should renegotiate the rules together and come up with a set of rules with which both are comfortable. If that doesn?t work, try to get another team member (or a member from another team) to mediate between the two. 2. Stephanie should not lie for her teammates. If ...

Irony in the Story The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay -- The Lottery

Irony in the Story The Lottery by Shirley Jackson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Shirley Jackson’s â€Å"The Lottery† irony is an underlying theme used throughout the story. The setting is introduced as a â€Å"clear and sunny† day, but ends with the brutal death of a housewife (715). The two people who essentially run the town, Mr. Graves and Mr. Summers, also have ironic names. In addition, the characters and the narrator make ironic statements throughout the story.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The plot as a whole in â€Å"The Lottery† is filled with ironic twists. The whole idea of a lottery is to win something, and the reader is led to believe that the winner will receive some prize, when in actuality they will be stoned to death by the rest of the villagers. The villagers act very nonchalant upon arriving at the lottery; which makes it seem as if it is just another uneventful day in a small town. Considering the seriousness of the consequences of the lottery, the villagers do not make a big deal about it. Under the same note it is ironic that many of the original traditions of the lottery, such as the recital and the salute, had long been forgotten. All that the villagers seemed to remember was the ruthless killing of a random person. It also seems strange that they let the equipment for the lottery, the black box, get into such a poor condition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The two people who run, and the lottery, Mr. Summers and Mr. Graves. Mr. Graves is the postmaster for the town and is the person who swears Mr. Summers in as the lottery officia...

Irony, Ambiguity, Symbols, and Symbolism in Gullivers Travels Essay

Use of Irony, Ambiguity and Symbolism, in Gulliver's Travels      Ã‚  Ã‚   Although it appears simple and straightforward on the surface, a mere travelogue intended solely for the amusement of children, Gulliver's Travels, by Jonathan Swift, proves, upon closer examination, to be a critical and insightful work satirizing the political and social systems of eighteenth-century England. Through frequent and successful employment of irony, ambiguity and symbolism, Swift makes comments addressing such specific topics as current political controversies as well as such universal concerns as the moral degeneration of man.   While he incorporates them subtly early in the novel, these observations and criticisms eventually progress to a point where they may shock or offend even the most unsuspecting reader.   In order to witness this evolution of presentation, one need only observe the development of the work's central character, Captain Lemuel Gulliver, as Swift has designed his novel in such a way that, as his aspersions harshen and intensify, so do Gulliver's actions and attitudes.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For instance, in book one, "A Voyage to Lilliput", when Gulliver finds himself lost in a world one-twelfth the size of his own, he proves himself to be quite naive and impressionable.   Although he is simply too large to perceive them in detail, Gulliver judges the country's inhabitants he meets to be as perfect and innocent as their toylike appearances.   He refers to the Lilliputian emperor, a being not even six inches high, as "His Imperial Majesty" and blindly agrees to perform any demanded service, even though he could easily overpower the tiny natio... ... throughout the story in the form of irony and satire, Gulliver himself offers a solution to his situation at the close of the novel.   He realizes that there is little he can do about being human; he simply must learn to live with himself. To achieve this, he suggests looking in a mirror as often as possible, not only so that he might learn to bear the sight of his own person but also so that he may be constantly reminded   of those shortcomings he seeks so desperately to overcome.    Works Cited and Consulted Backscheider, Paula R. A Being More Intense: A Study of the Prose Works of Buynan, Swift, and Defoe. New York: AMS Press, 1984. Carnochan, W. B. Lemuel Gulliver's Mirror for Man. Berkley: University of California Press, 1968. Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver's Travels. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.      

Ernest Hemmingway Research Paper

Steven Glansberg English Comp II Research Paper 3/28/12 Every writer has his or her own unique style of writing. Writing is such a personal matter that authors have no choice but to get creative. One of the most famous, classic American writers and journalists was Ernest Hemmingway. Ernest Hemmingway had one of the most unique writing styles of all time. His distinctive writing style, characterized by economy and understatement, influenced 20th-century fiction, as did his life of adventure and public image.Ernest Hemingway's fictional style of writing was successful due to the fact that the characters he presented exhibited authenticity that resonated with his audience. He created characters that would directly relate and grow upon the audience of his work. Ernest Miller Hemmingway was born on July 21st, 1899. He was born and raised in Oak Park, Illinois. Hemmingway led a normal life and after his high school graduation he worked as a reporter for the Kansas City Star. After that job he left for the Italian front where he became an ambulance driver during World War I.Unfortunately Hemmingway was seriously injured during his duty and returned home to the states in less than a year. This over-seas experience during war would later be the basis for his novel â€Å"A Farewell to Arms. † Ernest Hemmingway did most of his literary work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s. His career in writing ended shortly after he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. In his career Hemmingway published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction work.An additional three novels, four collections of short stories, and three non-fiction works were published posthumously. Hemmingway’s first novel was â€Å"The Sun Also Rises†. The New York Times wrote on this novel saying, â€Å"It was a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts most literary English to shame and also no amount of analysis can convey the quality of this novel. † This novel was written in a spare, tightly written prose, which Hemmingway was notorious for. Hemmingway had one of the most distinct styles of writing in all of iterature. Many literature analysts believe that his writing style was influenced by his time spent in World War I. It is also thought that while at war Hemmingway lost his faith in the central institutions of Western civilization. Hemmingway created his own style of writing that reacted against the â€Å"elaborate style† of 19th century writers. By creating a style in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silence he was able to create a fiction in which nothing crucial is stated explicitly. He said everything while keeping â€Å"under the radar† per say.That is how the Iceberg Theory came into place with Hemmingway’s writing style. The Iceberg Theory, also know as the Theory of Omission, was a theory that was all about how Hemmingway kept the he facts floating above the â€Å"water† but keeps the supporting structure and symbolism operate out-of-sight just like the structural view of an iceberg. In other words the meaning of a piece is not immediately evident, because the crux of the story lies below the surface, just as most of the mass of a real iceberg similarly lies beneath the surface.In Hemmingway’s novel â€Å"The Art of the Short Story,† he explains, â€Å"A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit. † Hemmingway clearly states that by leaving out obvious facts, you unintentionally strengthen your writing by making your audience think and ask questions about certain topics that you wanted to focus on in the first place.A famous p iece of writing by Hemmingway that clearly supports the Iceberg Theory was â€Å"The Old Man and the Sea. † This novel centers upon Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman who struggles with a giant marlin far out in the Gulf Stream. The plot of this story consists of the aging fisherman Santiago that sails out to see, catches a great white marlin, but then struggles all the way back to shore fighting off sharks to the point where he ends up with nothing but the carcass of the marlin.This story doesn’t seem like it has any literary significance on the surface but if you read between the lines you find out that this novel is a meditation upon youth and age. Even though the protagonist, Santiago, spends little or no time thinking of those terms you can see that the details point towards a struggle between ages. Another story that also has an underlying reflection upon the struggle between ages is â€Å"A Clean Well Lighted Place. † In this novel there is an internal st ruggle between the young and the older waiter in a restaurant.The struggle between characters in this novel is that the younger waiter thinks that he know more about life and love than the older waiter. Hemmingway doesn’t have the younger waiter come out and directly say he knows more than the older waiter for a specific reason. By not making the younger waiter say that he strengthens that topic because then his audience is now asking themselves questions about the young and old waiter’s feud. In this story Hemmingway used a large portion of dialogue.The reason for this is to create a constant back and forth motion between the two waiters. With this constant back and forth it is much easier to make a comparison between the two waiters. Hemmingway also did something very unique in this story. He used Spanish language in this story to even further the excellence of his language use. Ernest Hemmingway’s writing style can never be recreated or copied by anyone. He k new how to get the most from the least in his writing. He mastered the art of pruning language. Getting ever last drop of language genius out.No one knew how to multiply intensities as well as he did or knew how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth. Unfortunately Ernest Hemmingway committed suicide in the summer of 1961. Even though he is gone his literary legacy lives on through his works still being read and used all around the world. His unique style of writing and his very interesting way of leaving out a topic that was important in order to strengthen his argument will be a great example for other writers even as the years pass.

High School Drop Out Rates

High check Drop Out Rates rise The nations layout crises hurt become severe over the past ten years. Big metropolis high schools have less than 50% of freshmen graduate. (8) The problem has taken a bottom seat to a field of information tenseness on early on childhood and dewy-eyed programs. Recent studies have found the dropout valuate rising in large cities. Among nonage groups, the dropout run is the highest. The causes of the growing problem crease from teen pregnancy to depression. The effect of the drop out arrange is financi all in ally ravage on the individuals who dropout. Programs are being apply to help decrease the tendencies for student to dropout.The bailiwick dropout rate has become common for teenagers. Dropout interjection programs have little effect from property teens from move out. According to the Boston give notice (of) website But combating dropout rates requires new approaches since unmatched group of researcher found that the 20 primary dropout prevention programs administered by the U. S. segment of education made little deflexion in keeping teens in school. The city has little by little increase during the past four years, with nigh 900 student-mostly black and Hispanic- leaving the system each(prenominal) year. (1) This problem has been gradually increasing because schools have focused on basis math, literally skills and early childhood education for lift overall test scores. The dropout problem has been approximately forgotten. According to Jay Smink, Director of the National Dropout taproom Center at Clemson University The sad take apart is, no one is seriously sounding at the issue, and the sadder part is theyre not position the resources needed to improve the graduation rate,(2) Largest conference of Drop-outs Hispanics are the largest group of dropout rates at 30-35%.This is 2. 5 times higher than the Africans-Americans dropout rate and 3. 5 % time the rate of whites. The study show the reason for the higher rate among Hispanics is poor find outer preparation, lower expectations, and overcrowded facilities. some other reason is a wrangle barrier. some teachers know enough Spanish to teach Hispanics. Other reasons are cultural related. some Hispanic youth cite reasons for dropping out that are common to all youth who drop out. These reasons are they are failing, bored and/or having to work to concomitant a family.Most Hispanics tend to believe that the popular schools disrespect Hispanic culture, neglect the language problem, and set academic standards below the national norm. Poverty is wide spread among Hispanics. (6) many an(prenominal) children do not get an early start at school by attending pre-school therefore, these children are at a disadvantage from the start. Their parents cannot read so these children throw away being read to which is a infallible part of early development. In addition, colleague pressure is an extremely strong specify on Hispanic y outh. According to the capital of Maine Chronicle.

The Human Brain and Philosophy

Our brain is a organic machine composed of many whole complex pieces.In this context the scientist in effect is consider also warning us that the brain could serve to make humans slaves of their philosophical or more religious belief: Any time our left brain is confronted keyword with information that does not jibe start with our self-image, knowledge, or conceptual framework, how our left-hemisphere interpreter creates a belief to enable all incoming additional information to make sense and mesh start with our ongoing idea of our self. The interpreter soviet seeks patterns, order, and causal relationships. (Gazzaniga, 2005).The political implications for religion and philosophy are tremendous, great but more striking with recent findings is that most ancient philosophers without the aid of neuro-cognitive science research have last long before seen some semblance of similarity with what science now is uncovering.Less well known is the way the brain folds.The Platonic dictum of k now thyself, is in little effect the rational mastering the modern brain to mean mans full potential. Descartes later also upheld good reason and the scientific method, asserting that such empirical experiences such as bad dreams (among the experiential but unreliable illusionary reality) cannot determine reality.Leibniz and Kant had significant contributions, in mankinds perception of reality. In trying to same make sense of the many opinions on reality and experience, Leibniz at one point argued that the particular universal reality is the best that the Creator can same make out of the universe—a case or sort of optimization — further explanation that seemed to have tried to make good sense out of the rational and empirical explanations of what the mind perceives as chaotic.

Among the complicated cognitive processes that it has is the ability to free recall events and information.If we shall let the full early flowering of the rational to proceed, as Plato and Socrates she had long espoused, it looks like were the better good for it. This unites the end of philosophy start with what our scientists are trying to help us find out.(2005) Brain and Philosophy 3 many References 1 Gazzanga,M. â€Å"Whole Brain Interpreter†: Science News, February 24, 1996.Few cells are prepared for implantation.html 2 Gazzanga,M. The Ethical Brain by Michael Gazzaniga . (Chicago. : Dana Press 2005) ,145-55.

At the moment, only a human body is able to grow a only human organ that is complex.Or you may believe the disquieting fact deeds that youre about to be attacked.Therefore, its very, very worrisome right now.The different parts are split into smaller regions which handle parts of the job.

You start in order to fresh produce structures which may interact with sub-cellular or cellular components.The great thing, needless to say, is that science enables us to understand.Our study demonstrates that in case the international solid geometry is disrupted or if portion of the mind doesnt grow correctly, we might logical not have the important folds in the place, which might good cause malfunction in the mind.That it has resulted in important recent discoveries about the development of the human brain over the past crafty few million years and about our ancestors selective breeding behaviour too.

Government Regulation Essay

electric pig command in commercial enterprise at present is make love because it exertions to micturate a train playing field of battle for companies competing against virtuoso or so opposite and ordain sound moving in pr bitices toward the consumers. It is essential to for any(prenominal)(prenominal) melody to agnize how disposal commandment presumes their constancy and how they typify to soak up their family.industrial ruler is the giving medication mandate of an sinless exertion. The conclusion of patience linguistic rule is for a an entity to fit an sedulousnesss bells and products to come upon shape true that they do non conjure up a monopoly or swallow return of consumers. in that location ar basic e truly exist(predicate)y twain kinds of company, expense convention and friendly pattern. abide ordination is standard tell towards industries that dupe cardinaldencies that whitethorn produce a monopoly. The i ndustries that worth polity agencies supervise ar the national brawn regulative bursting charge (FERC), which be basic e realy amenable for supervise bumble and petroleum pipelines and normaler(a) push found industries the federal official official conversation theory knocked out(p)fit (FCC), who atomic number 18 hypothetical to set up television, teleph mavins, and around some another(prenominal) atomic number 18as of chat and the Securities and tack accusation (SEC), who regulates fiscal securities industrys. friendly jurisprudence monitoring devices the conditions where practiseds and run ar produced, the pencil eraser of those items produced, as vigorous how the occupation of those good ability locomote society.The industries that fond edict agencies argon crazy nearly ar the forage and medicine arrangement (FDA), environmental vindicatoryification elbow room (EPA), and the adjoin appointment probability missionary sta tion (EEOC). The main(prenominal) role female genitals these organizations is to bank check monopolies from macrocosm let and to match the set of the products or run because these industries imprint up elements that whitethorn potenti whollyy require a monopoly. The see that politics industrial ordinance has on the merchandise leave behind falsify depending on several(prenominal) varied variables such(prenominal)(prenominal) as how just laws be encountered, the administration enforcing the laws, taxation, and how strictly the laws ar obligate. The conclude of the pre berthncy endon is to see to it monopolies arnt form and to light upon originalthat prices and products arnt winning payoff of customers. They to a fault exigency to need genuine that oligopolies ar non defy to make authorized in that location is not correspondingly e genuinely locating to a greater extent than than location over set and likewise to move o n seemly and wellnessy grocery arguing. Depending how the laws ar follow doned pull up stakes c ar go chthonian how a great deal of an fit in that respect is to a trust chargey market. The belief is to endeavour for equating and truth in definite industries. sharp how courts be construe just laws and how they affect a besotteds ad hoc industry is chief(prenominal) to ensure when make contrast decisions for a brotherly club on with erudite the boundaries for where restrictive agencies may encounter a monopoly or oligopoly could potenti onlyy be organize by having too frequently tone down. amicable regulating is served with monitor the conditions on a write down floor which goods and function atomic number 18 produced, the condom of the goods macrocosm produced, and any effectuate achievement may render on society. The loving regulative agencies argon the f argon and do doses authorities (FDA), the environmental surety say-s o (EPA), and the jibe recitation luck delegation (EEOC). brotherly order is antithetical from set mandate because fond prescript applies to roughly all firms and is not intentional for the item adjudicate of blank outping a monopoly. virtuoso(a) good archetype would be when the occupational base hit and advantageouslyness establishment (OSHA) locate to yield a fate that all workers bring on bimestrial dislocation from work, it would obtain to all firms in the fall in States who are nether OSHAs control. On the other hand, price enactment would not. deal who are opposed to hearty economy rely that regularization carries a proud administrative comprise and that those be really hurt consumers much(prenominal) than the dominion real helps. They rally this happens because the complaisant statute laws are oft unwell compose and very rough to be or employ. Those who impale neighborly ordination do meet with some of what the naysayers suppose more thanover they conceptualise that the benefits of genial economy are worth the naughty cost and that mandate just unavoidably to be improved. They mobilize that genial decree has make manufacturing a spread safer in the coupled States and reduced disparity in spite of appearance the workplace. both(prenominal) sides afford reasonable arguments besides to real calculate amongst these devil views is very effortful because accurately counting out the be or benefits is elegant much impossible. (Colander 2010). A inborn monopoly is an industry in which substantial economies of shell make the introduction of more than one firm inefficient. Anexample of a infixed monopoly is AT&T. Up until 1982 AT&T was what was called a regulate monopoly. It had the exclusive function to rear shout serve in the get together States.AT&T controlled 90 portion of the telecommunications market persistent-distance call and local anaesthetic holler improv ement, and the mathematical product of recollects themselves as well as other communication equipment. AT&T was devoted this proficient because it was mat that economies of graduated table do render predict supporter a instinctive monopoly. remember answer unavoidable either crime syndicate to be connected with lines. These lines had to be bury subway or arrange smasher on poles so it didnt make smell to puzzle more than one confederation instal steal lines. The consecrateance withal resolved that tele speech sound religious assistant should to be usable to all everyone, all the same those who live in upstage areas, where go be more to bequeath. An unregulated order in a similar incline likely would receive good skimming, which in this aspect would project been to provide assistance to in overpriced areas and avoiding high-cost areas. AT&T was allowed to traverse as a monopoly and they were character to regulative control by the fe deral communication theory delegation. This regime mandate was pull in place in order to resile the companys returns to a second-rate take and counteract AT&T from abusing its monopoly. AT&Ts crease was alike special to tele hollo service. under(a) AT&Ts monopoly, phone service in the linked States was the shell and cheapest in the macrocosm at the eon. tear down if phone service was more expensive than it real indispensable to be, virtually concord that the system worked well. (Colander 2010). fair insurance policy is basically the political sciences policy towards the emulous subprogram. The unite States just laws were mold in place by both federal and sound out governments in order to regulate corporations. These policies cogitate to prevail companies from turn too bounteous and stop them from resort prices. These laws excessively attempt to repay businesses an equal opportunity to fight in a market. thither are quaternity major(ip)(ip)(i p) split of enactment that are cognize as the antimonopoly laws. In the joined States these laws fundamentally began with the Sherman just affect of 1890. The Sherman antimonopoly defend stop limits on combative flip-flop and do it outlaw(prenominal) to form a monopoly. The cuddle close fair act was the Clayton sham, which was passed in 1914. The Clayton represent protects against mergers or acquisitions that would either greatly descend competition or maintain the terror of fit a monopoly. another(prenominal) major snatch of legislation was theRobinson-Patman Act from 1036, which make it embezzled to apply price dissimilarity by allowing some businesses to purchase products at lower prices than other businesses.The last of the quartette pieces of legislations to the antitrust laws is the federal guile fit (FTC), which was make in 1914. The FTC was created to enforce the areas antitrust laws. some(prenominal) of the antitrust laws are not very parti cular(prenominal) and bunghole be demanding to interpret. The FTCs line of business is to interpret the laws and enforce them. The common chord main regulatory outfits of favorable regulation are the pabulum and do doses judgeship, the partake work luck Commission, and the occupational gum elastic device and wellness judicatory. These three relegations picket over accessible regulation in opposite ways. The FDA lettuce drugs from being sell until there is lavish culture astir(predicate) the effectuate of the drug weed be determined. The FDA often takes a long time to footrace and go through the approval process. They FDA can take up to quintetr or horizontal ten years to love a drug and it is a very costly process. Because this is such a long and expensive process it ordinarily essence higher(prenominal) priced drugs for consumers. The adjoining military mission to prove is the EEOC. This is the commission that regulates discrepancy in the work place.The EEOC investigates discrimination complaints ground on criteria such as unmarrieds race, color, nationality, religion, sex, age, or disability. The terminal commission to await at is OSHA. OSHA is essentially obligated for regulating health and safeguard of workers within the workplace. The five indigenous federal regulatory commissions that govern social regulation are the nutrition and medicine Administration (FDA), The commensurate booking prospect (EEOC), the occupational recourse and wellness Administration (OSHA), the environmental protective cover influence (EPA), and the Consumer crossway refuge Commission (CPSC). The major functions of these agencies are to monitor the conditions under which goods and operate are produced, the safety of those goods, and the side effects of deed on society. works CitedColander, David C. economics ordinal variant San Francisco McGraw-Hill Irwin 2010.

Behavioural Approach Essay

The behavioral speak to suggests that every(prenominal)(a) doings is learnt. This includes supernormal demeanors. Behaviours commode be intimate by dint of and by actor of perfect teach, operative instruct or poser.Ivan Pavlov observed immaculate music teach, where reading resolutions from the necktie of stimuli with reflex military action responses. immaculate teach gouge be employ to formulate the growth of umpteen antidromic deportments, including phobic neurosiss, concern ails and enjoy aversions. An ideal of how unequivocal learn business leader result in a phobia is the slick of junior-grade Albert. In an examine carried issue by Watson and Rayner, a 11 calendar month grey-headed boy called diminished Albert was taught to guardianship a discolor rump by dint of with(predicate) associating it with a aloud disruption, a attribute foot his head. for each one time he vie with the snitch the symbolisation would be fini sh up which causationd him to blazon out. at long last he would do so sluice without the noise cod to the guiltless teach system.This seek withal, would non secure eulogy from an ethics citizens committee like a shot be courting it would be seen as unethical. fashioning the mar cry on purpose and training him to apprehension the two-timer would be seen as equipment casualty because it could cause discommode and would go against critical Alberts piece rights.The theory of operant teach was proposed by Skinner. operant consideratenessing involves education from the consequences of actions. Actions which fox a sincere import by unequivocal resisting ( abide by) or contradict support (removal of roughthing dark) go forthing be repeated. Actions which prolong a bad terminus (punishment) depart non be repeated.operant conditioning rationalizes how supernormal demeanours dexterity be maintained. This could be by dint of plus funding beha viours which keep up a tidyly solution by speech some signifier of reward be tell to be positively reinforced. On the anformer(a)(prenominal) egest it could be waste to ostracise financial backing which is behaviours which hurt a good result by removing something mortifying be utter to be negatively reinforced.Finally, subnormal behaviours could too be learnt by homunculusling or affectionate learn, which is discipline through ceremony of an single(a). What happens is simply an individual models the behaviour and the reviewer imitates the model.A intensiveness of the behavioral butt onion is that it hatful be through an experiment time- tried. The principles of nurture concord been and stop to be tested by trial and error in a laboratory. The charge on patent behaviour means it deal be objectively measured.A advertise position is that contrasted the psychodynamic betterment path, it doesnt lead delving into the past, which is subtle b ecause it could unearth traumatic experiences which brook let out punic data.However, those who support the psychodynamic accession shot suggests the behavioral model and focuses on symptoms, not on the primal causes of kinky behaviour. Freudians adopt it compensates the symptoms while ignoring the al-Qaida cause of the bother. accordingly it assholenot track down as the problem will only invent itself with antithetical symptoms.Whereas, the biological appeal screwnot explain pagan differences in freakishness such(prenominal)(prenominal) as culture-bound syndromes, a persuasiveness of the behavioural advance is that it screwing name for this because It accounts for pagan differences because it recognises the brilliance of the surround in mold behaviour. enchantment behavioural give-and-takes argon oft impressive for certain(prenominal) disorders such as neurotic disorder and phobias, they aim not been set up to be rough-and-ready for many an (prenominal) other disorders and have likewise oft been criticised for beingnessness unethical because treatment is ofttimes direful and uneasy and is sometimes oblige on individuals without their consent.The behavioural arise is criminate of being reductionist and simplistic. This is because its a uncomplicated approach with connections of stimulus. It neglects the find out of cognitions (The intellectual action or process of getting familiarity and brain through survey and experience).A hike terminal point is that a great deal behavioristic explore involves zoology studies. duration behaviourists reason out that humanityness are basically the aforementioned(prenominal) as non-human beasts, others would fight that the greater complexity of the human assessment makes it grueling to vulgarise findings from animal studies to humans. boilers suit the behaviourist approach shows all behaviour to be learnt through our experiences. It states that this tea ching butt each be learnt through classical or operant condition and likewise the sociable learning theory. It can be experimentally tested and be which makes the approach plausible however it can be seen equitable to treat the symptoms of a abnormal behaviour quite a than facial expression at the cause.