Banjo Paterson’s Clancy of the Overflow and Henry Lawson’s Up the Country Essay

Australian Bush Ballads have captured the essence of early Australian life. Bush Ballads do more than this they often deal with the hardships encountered living on the land as well as the people of the bush. The poetry of â€Å"Henry Lawson† and â€Å"Banjo Paterson† deal with these concepts. While Banjo Paterson defends and romanticises the bush in his many ballads for example â€Å"Clancy of the Overflow†, Henry Lawson provides a more balanced view of the bush in his poems, in particular â€Å"Up the Country.† Poem – Clancy of the overflow by Banjo Paterson Topic sentence – â€Å"Clancy of the Overflow† is typical of an Australian Bush Ballad. In this poem, Clancy serves as the representation of what Australians should be like, which is wild, adventurous, pioneering, friendly and free. Body – Paterson’s poem â€Å"Clancy of the overflow† criticises the dynamics of town life because it objects to the values the bush is based upon. For Paterson, these values included order, stagnation, narrowness of vision and unfriendliness. Paterson feels as though these values will not create a better Australia. Banjo Paterson romanticises about the Australian bush and in this poem he describes how wonderful and extravagant life in the bush is by using flowing and expressive language for example vision splendid, sunlit plains, wondrous glory and everlasting stars. An extract from his poem sums up the landscape of the bush, â€Å"In the murmur of the breezes and the river on its bars, and he sees the vision splendid of the sunlit plains extended, and at night the wondrous glory of the everlasting stars.† Banjo Paterson has created a flowing stanza of rhyme which depicts and portrays the awe of the Australian bush using imagery making the reader more involved in the story. Clancy personifies Paterson’s vision of what the Australian should be. He is an individual who is a part of the historical evolution of Australia in touch with the traditions of life on the land. Paterson is celebrating this aspect of Australia and idealising the experience of the shearer and drover,  in general. Quote – â€Å"In the murmur of the breezes and the river on its bars, and he sees the vision splendid of the sunlit plains extended, and at night the wondrous glory of the everlasting stars.† Poem – Up the Country by Henry Lawson Topic sentence – â€Å"Up the Country† by â€Å"Henry Lawson† contrasts city and bush life but still conveys a balanced and descriptive perspective on what the bush and city are like. Body – Henry Lawson’s ability to portray and capture a true image of the bush and city in his poems is exemplary particularly in his poem â€Å"Up the Country.† Although Henry Lawson dislikes the Australian Bush and degrades the scenery, he also describes the isolation of the outback and the devastation brought by the fires, floods and droughts. Therefore Australian Bush Ballads do show us the challenges of living in the Australian Landscape. Henry Lawson believed that an Australian identity must emanate from its own soil, not from the safe green fields of the mother country, Britain. This is why he took such a strong stance on the bush. The landscape in the poem â€Å"Up the Country† is described as being filled with â€Å"miles and miles of thirsty gutters† which is reflecting on the Australian landscape being affected by drought, and Isolation, for the thirsty gutters stretch for miles and miles. In this extract the reader is brought to the understanding that the bush is an isolated and harsh place. Henry Lawson has written this poem in first person, so as to give his personal opinion of the bush. This can clearly be seen by the title, Up the Country. In this poem he has depicted and conveyed different alley ways into the world of the Australian bush, by using descriptive language he has shaped and given the reader an understanding of what life in the bush would really be like. Quote – â€Å"Miles and miles of thirsty gutters†

Classification Essay on Love

Eros is the type of love that is repeatedly displayed in Hollywood productions. The influence of this mass media too often distorts the societal image of what exactly love is (Cellulose). Eros is the most common kind of love, as it is the most common to be taken out of context. This type of love is what God intended and restricted to a one-man, one-woman kind of relationship within the bound of marriage, but society has warped and perverted it into something that most are brain-washed into believing is more enjoyable (Newton).These perversions include fornication, adultery, and same-sex marriage (â€Å"Kinds of Love†). The love that one has within friendships is known as Philae (Cellulose). Philae is to have a special interest in someone or something, frequently with focus on close association; have affection for, like, consider someone a friend (â€Å"Four Kinds of Love†). It is a love of the affections – one that comes and goes with intensity (Newton). It is us ually fun and carefree which is why it is easy for it to dissolve at the first sight of something going wrong.Imagine that one's best friend is dating a boy who Is a Jerk ND treats her like dirt, but she likes him so much that she excuses the way he acts and has convinced herself that she can change his ways. In reality, one might know that he's not going to change, so because of the love one has for their friend, they try to convince her that she needs to end the relationship. The favored scenario would be that she trusts their opinion and Is able to see the truth. However, If she mistakes that love for her safety as something such as Jealousy, the friendship can be destroyed along with the people love that was once there.Storage, the love that naturally occurs between parents and children, can exist between siblings and is present between husbands and wives in a good marriage (â€Å"Four Kinds of Love†). It is supportive and caring and is shown in deed and in truth (Newton) . It's not limited to only humans; storage is also applicable to pets and objects as well. There are several scenarios in which it is common to see storage in action – ten time AT teat or velocity, ten time AT Taller or success, ten time AT slackness or In good health, the time of sadness or Joy, and the time of achievement or spottiness's (â€Å"Kinds of Love†).In a marriage, there are multiple types of love required for it to be healthy, with storage being at the top of the list. The most powerful of loves is agape. It is the love for which God gave up his son to save all of humanity and the love with which Jesus died on the cross to liberate mankind from sin and death (Newton). Though most people have their staple few that they say they would lay their lives down for, Jesus did it for all mankind. What is even more amazing is that He did it without even personally knowing many of us.It did not matter to Him that we were stumbling in sin and self-pity. He loves us so much that he accomplished the impossible. That is why agape is known as the supreme love, for it covers a multitude of sins (â€Å"Four Kinds of Love†). The love that lasts longer than dinner and the movie is a healthy blend of Eros, the physical attraction; storage, the total support and care; Philae, the friendship; and agape, the unconditional commitment (â€Å"Four Kinds of Love†). In order to have a balanced love life, all four must be existent.

The effect of enzyme concentration on enzyme activity Essay

The effect of enzyme concentration on enzyme activity - Essay Example the more the molecules available, more reaction takes place. This is expressed in units of molarity. In the following experiment, the aim was to determine the effect on the rate of reaction by varying the quantity of the enzyme on the reaction process by measuring a physically/visually perceptible change in colour. A milk protein, Casein was used which is subject to breakdown by the action of a protease enzyme. The idea was to vary the concentration of the protease enzyme in a constant volume of the milk sample and measure the reaction time by the end point, taken as the time taken for the clearing up of the solution. Values for various concentrations were obtained and the results evaluated. The dependent variables in the experiment were the concentration of the milk solution and the enzyme dilutions and the independent variables were visual time measurement, temperature and the degree of mixing the two solutions. Equal volumes of a protease solution and the milk sample (5 cm3) were placed in different test tubes (TT1 & TT2). Milk solution was prepared by dissolving 5 g of milk powder in 100 ml of water. Contents from both tubes were mixed together and the stop watch started. The mixture test tube was placed in front of a white paper marked with a cross and the time measured up to the point when the cross was visible through the solution. This gave the time interval for the disappearance of the substrate and so the time values for the reaction were expressed as a function of 1/T. It is very clear from the above table as well as graph that with the successive decrease in the concentration of the enzyme, it took more time for the solution to clear up indicating that the amount of enzyme influenced the rate of the reaction. This confirms the fact that more the number of enzyme molecules available, the faster will be the rate of the reaction. As a corollary of this result, it can be hypothesized from the result that when more molecules of both the

Discuss the influence of the Mongol Rule on Russia in the 13-15th Essay

Discuss the influence of the Mongol Rule on Russia in the 13-15th centuries - Essay Example Russia before the Mongol invasion The 12th century became known as the peak of a period of feudal disunity in Russian and Soviet historiography. While there existed 15 quasi-independent principalities in the Russian lands of the mid-12th century, their numbers swelled to more than 50 on the eve of Mongol invasion (Vernadsky, 1973). The largest of these principalities included the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal that dominated the North-East Rus, the mercantile Republic of Novgorod that was practically independent from the Riurikid dynasty due to its custom of electing its princes, and the Principality of Halych in the South-West that became a basis for Dual Principality of Halych-Volyn’ after the unification of Halych and Volyn’ under Volynian prince Roman Rostislavich (ruled 1189-1205) in 1199 (Martin, 2003, pp.97). The other principalities, including Ryazan, Smolensk, Chernigov and Polotsk, were generally weak and dependent on their larger neighbors. The political fra gmentation of Kievan Rus was accompanied by bitter infighting between various principal cliques for the domination over Kiev, which, while having lost its previous political and economic importance, still remained a lucrative prize for an ambitious prince. The most important feudal wars in the 12th to 13th century included the warfare between princely clans of Monomashichi and Ol’govichi in 1146-1154, the raid of north-eastern princes led by Andrey Bogolubsky against Kiev in 1169, and the war between Roman of Volyn’ and Suzdalian Grand Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest (ruled in 1154-1212) in 1202-1203 (Martin 2003; Vernadsky 1973). While the separation of Rus’ lands into distinct polities allowed rapid economic development at the local level and facilitated the formation of cultural centers independent from Kiev, it undermined the potential for joint struggle of different principalities against the Great Steppe nomads. The failure of the raid of Igor Prince of Novgo rod-Siversky against the Polovtsy (Cumans) in 1185 (Martin, 2003, p.146) and especially the first disastrous encounter between the united hosts of the Rus’ princes and the vanguard Mongol troops in the Battle of Kalka River in 1223 (Fennell, 1983, pp.66-68) showed that Kievan Rus’ was unprepared for the Mongol onslaught. Positive and negative influences on the development of Russia under Mongol rule After the subjugation of Volga Bulgarians in 1236, the Mongol armies led by Batu Khan and Subutai attacked the territories of Grand Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal in November 1237. The fall of Ryazan and Vladimir signified the end of organized resistance by north-eastern princes, while the death of grand prince Yuri Vsevolodovich in the Battle of the Sit River in March 1238 (Fennell, 1983, p.81) left the Rus’ princes without their formal sovereign, making any coordinated counterattack unlikely. The only territories of the North left independent were Novgorod and its vassal principality of Pskov. In 1239-1240 Batu Khan attacked the South-Western Rus, destroying Chernigov and taking Kiev in December 1240 (Fennell,1983, p.83). Finally, in 1241 the Mongols managed to capture and ransack Halych and Vladimir-in-Volyn’, the capital of Volynian lands. From that time on, the majority of Rus’ principalities was unable to resist the Mongols and

National Curriulum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

National Curriulum - Essay Example The strategy required that students be given one hour of literacy classes on a daily basis. In other words, they were supposed to engage in reading and writing classed at any one time. (The BBC, 2009) While the latter strategy may seem like a good thing, there are certain concerns that have been raised about this issue with regard to the curriculum and lesson planning issues. However, before looking into some of these arguments it is essential to understand that there have been some positive outcomes in this regard. First of all, the literacy national strategy has led to better teaching of literacy skills through incorporation into the curriculum. Many experts argue that this may be one of the most important skills to be learnt from school by students. Additionally, the process of balancing the national curriculum with the national strategy is that it necessitated a massive training program for teachers consequently, leading to better knowledge with regard to the process of reading and writing. Through the national literacy strategy, there was a need to change the curriculum so as to incorporate new teaching aspects. For example, it has been found that aspects such as grammar and phonics (which had been previously left out) are now being put into consideration. It should also be noted that through the process of balancing the national curriculum with the national strategy, there have been greater amounts of resources that have been dedicated to primary education in the United Kingdom. In fact, experts assert that numerous schools within the region have restored their libraries and now boast of plenty of books which are now at teachers' and children's disposal. On top of the latter, there are many situations in which teachers have had to include activities and games in the lesson planning process thus making education more colourful and interesting for children. (DFES, 2006) However, it is not just these positive outcomes that have emanated from the latter strategy. In fact, it is a proven fact that whenever there is a government led project within the education sector, certain unintended consequences must emanate from it. For instance it is a big challenge for teachers to balance between three of the following aspects School league tables Targets Tests In the process of balancing between the national curriculum and national strategies, teachers have found that most of their time and attention has been driven towards the issue of tests instead of other learning issues. This matter is further compounded by the fact that there are high stakes in those tests. Most of the time, parents want to find out how their children performed and they usually use this issue as a criterion for success. In the end, the individual who suffers is the child who finds that their mind must always be on the tests. Learning then becomes a boring process for them. It can therefore be asserted that the aims for which these two aspects i.e. the national curriculum and the national strategy were intended in accomplishing actually end being sidelined. (Department for Schools, children and families, 2008) Most of the time, curriculum implementation needs to be done in such a manner that it allows for greater flexibility in the teaching and the learning process. However, the literacy national strategy eliminated this aspect through its rigorous and one size fits all strategy. The taskforce appointed to implement this aspect

Q7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Q7 - Essay Example Some of the processing can also be offloaded to UNIX platforms so that the cost of processing is cheaper.(The, 2008). The basic thrust will thus be to integrate the batch processing as a part of the larger applications, and carry out two to three processes in smaller batches. If batch and real time processing are integrated with the processing pushed down as close to the system as possible, on a JAVA platform, efficiency can be improved. Performance would also improve if the data for the batch processing is cached and placed in the same subsystem as the other major online processing activities that are going on concurrently. The Company could opt to use IBM’s batch processing model (www.publib.boulder.ibm.com), which are JAVA applications for which a patch has to be built so that a batch application can be run. Another option for the Company is to consider using database servers to run these applications. While the HP Integrity r X8640 database can process 76,726 payroll checks with 3000 concurrent users, the IBM power6 based p570 DB server can process 74, 257.(www.h71028.www7.hp.com). In terms of order to cash lines however, the hour batch output is much higher with the IBM system – 94,757 as compared to HP’s 81,477. The HP system costs less, because it is only 3/4th of the IBM price, hence the Company can assess which application better suits their needs. 2. Improvements in mobile applications have led to a change in workplace paradigms. For instance, technology that integrates mobile computing and workflow management technologies enables the creation of a mobile workforce that can perform streamline work activities on the field. One example of such a mobile application is the rise in mobile printing, which enables automated data collection at the site of the transaction itself.(Albright, 2004). This is especially useful in the field of sales and postal applications as well as transportation and logistics.

Argue a position Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Argue a position - Essay Example Even though many people have expressed their dissatisfaction with the engagement of the United States in the war against terrorism, American was right to enter the war because the benefits far much outweighs the costs of being in the war. In this terrorism age, it was prudent for America to enter in the war against terrorism in order to be in the upfront of protecting humanity as the world superpower. After the September 11 terrorist attack on the United State, there was panic all over the world and the only way to dispel the fear that terrorist under the leadership of Osama Bin Laden had planted in the heart of Americans and the entire globe, it was necessary for America to invade the boundaries of Afghanistan in search of the dangerous group (Heymann 19). The United States initiated the war against Afghanistan with the support of allies. America together with its allies in the war never aimed at retaliation following the September 11 terrorist attack on innocent civilians, but the main focus was to destroy a safe and supportive operation ground for al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. The main focus was to oust the Taliban out of power so as to dismantle and disable the al-Qaeda group that had been a nightmare in the region an d to the United States and the rest of the world. The al-Qaeda treated women and children in a brutal way aiming to subject them to a lifetime misery and abject poverty. Also, the Al Qaeda and the Taliban regime used civilians as shields while perpetuating their atrocities, which highly contravene humanity. Taliban commanders seized humanitarian aid offered to innocent civilians in the war torn region and cared little about human life (Oshunrinade 160). The al-Qaeda committed wanting humanitarian crimes and propagated drug trade to finance their acts of terrorism around the world. Was these not enough reason for a country that believes in human rights and freedom to intervene? The

Psychiatric Hospitals in Ireland Research Paper

Psychiatric Hospitals in Ireland - Research Paper Example The call for uniformity of care for psychiatric illnesses has been fostered by several legislations across countries, and the current trend is to foster care increasingly in the community in collaboration with the family [2]. Despite that, there are certain conditions where there is a need to detain the patient in the mental health hospitals with forceful and involuntary admission, where coercion plays an important role. Admission against the will of the patient is an ethically unsound area of practice; and therefore law directs the process. Within the legal framework, the mental health professionals thus exercise their power to detain or incarcerate the patients with an adequate indication permitted by law. The problems or debates arise when there is observed diversity in psychiatric practice, and the heterogeneity of sociocultural environment and differences in professional attitudes towards mentally ill people, all may influence a decision regarding involuntary admission [3]. This has been contributed to by lack of reliable markers of psychiatric diagnoses and management plan for them. The admission to a psychiatric healthcare facility in Ireland may be involuntary, although till now, the vast majority of such admissions are voluntary. Involuntary admission means the patient does not freely agree for the treatment or admission to an inpatient psychiatric unit. The other part of such admission may be that even though the patient agrees for a voluntary admission, there may be detention of these patients into the units in that they are not completely free to leave psychiatric care on their free will. Thus this leads to a detention beyond volition, and detailed rules, regulations, and laws guide such principles. The Irish mental health policies regarding involuntary admission or detention are governed by the Irish Mental Health Act of 2001 and have been in full implementation since November 2006 and all psychiatric facilities including public and private are under its regulations. According to this act, the psychiatric hospitals and units need to be registered as appr oved psychiatric centres, and those hospitals and inpatient units which were providing care to people with psychiatric illnesses at the time of implementation of this law will be considered approved by November 2009. The mental health act 2001 sets out the criteria for involuntary admission to these approved centres for persons suffering from mental disorders. This act also creates provision for independent review of the involuntary admissions of such persons [4]. In a short summary, this act recommends involuntary admissions and detention in an approved psychiatric centre due to psychiatric disorder. The main scenarios or conditions that may cause involuntary admission are personality disorder, social deviance, drug addiction, and intoxication. Although psychiatric patients have their own rights, this act implies that involuntary admission is for the patients' own interests in care and treatment through appropriate examination findings of the psychiatrists, where all information will be revealed to the patients, and in case of incoherence, the tribunal may review such decisions where sometimes the court of law may interfere if appeals are made. These principles are also

Health Care Reform Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Health Care Reform - Essay Example Some the benefits include allowing children to purchase insurance, at the start of 2014 women will no longer be charged more than men. Insurance firms will also be regulated so that they are not able to hike insurance rates when an individual falls ill will be of benefit to all the citizens. This regulate of the insurance will greatly help in ensuring that the health of any individual is not jeopardize just because of their social status and age The ability of state-based exchanges will also allow persons who are unemployed to purchase insurance. Subsidies will also be provided to those families that are below the federal poverty level. These reforms will be a great boost to most of the citizens who do not earn a decent income (Jill, 2012). Healthcare in the United States is a fundamental part of living. This is due to the many health issues that Americans face in a daily basis. However, the healthcare structure in the America is faced by a big problem of expensive services, which is not affordable to most of the people. A big percentage of American population is not medically insured and this leads to the physician visits being too expensive for an ordinary citizen. Approximately 44million Americans are not insured and an additional 38 million have insufficient health insurances. This population lives each day not sure what would happen if they fell sick or were in need of medical attention. The absence of a medical insurance therefore means that they cannot visit the physician for regular check ups and will always postpone illnesses or trips to the doctor because they simply cannot afford it. Delayed medical care for fear of expenses is a disaster considering the number of people in the country and the illnesses that could be treated early turning fatal. People without health insurance are at the greatest risk of not catching illnesses early enough and not acquiring medical

Performance Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Performance Management - Essay Example 2. Can the culture of an organization be changed to increase performance? Yes, the culture of an organization can be changed to increase performance because in today’s environment, change in the business environment is typical because of the rapid developments of technology. Business has been exposed to different stimuli, like economic crisis, globalization and technological changes. Changes in the organization are imperative because of the external developments and market development. The conditions obtaining in the market dictates for a culture change in the organization for survival reasons. For instance, in high technology firms, technological innovations becomes critical in responding to fast changes, so much so that innovation highly depends on acquiring new knowledge. 3. As a senior leader in an organization what can you do to change the culture and in turn increase performance of the business? To change an organizational culture is a difficult task because it has been entrenched and grown over time. Often times, people and management are too comfortable in it to attempt for a change and only a dramatic or significant event can change this culture like bankruptcy, loss of sales and customers or maybe lives. In starting a cultural change, senior leader should make an assessment, results of which could make one happy or sad. As a senior leader, he should have a keen eye to watch emotions, why they are excited or upset on things that matter. The leader should also be a watchful observer of objects displayed or hang on the walls that may present convictions, and to watch for things that are not there. A senior leader should be curious for things that are not mentioned by employees, but something that is very much important to management like customers. To change an entrenched culture, leader should first of all win the hearts and minds of the people he is working with. This cannot happen in a very short while, but it will take persuasion and patience. First, people should understand why change of culture is necessary, second, leader should know the cost of the change as it will entail shift from present design to a new one, and third, is to find ways how to motivate the people, and last, is to practice the organizational politics. 4. As an HR leader in an organization what can you do to change the culture and in turn increase performance of the business? Since it is inevitable that all things flow from the head, the values of the leader of any organization are reflected in the organization’s culture. In changing the culture of the organization, a leader must be able to communicate the vision of where the organization needs to go, and at this aspect, the leader must be trustworthy. In this context, it is seen that the transformation of the employees is the responsibility of the HR leader in the organization and the duty of the subordinates to receive and implement. Generally, employees are happy when they feel they are tru sted and important in the company. As an HR leader, there is a need to study the company’s personnel structure and find each employee’s strength. In working for a culture change, an HR leader should get

Autism and Social Skills Essay Example for Free

Autism and Social Skills Essay Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder that ranges from mild to severe impairments in communication, social interaction, and repetitive pattern of interest. Children with autism need early social skills support to develop their social interactions and understanding. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and socialization among young children and adolescence is one of the major impairments, along with language individuals have. Social skills groups are prearranged groups with, a direct goal orientated to engage young children and adolescences with the appropriate support, in the development of social skills. Social skills groups for young children and adolescences can be a viable tool, in helping children with ASD to learn how to socialize appropriately. The Socialization of young children with a diagnosis of ASD has shown some positive results. This pilot study was conducted in response to the heightened awareness and the need for young children with ASD to learn social skills. The parents of autistic children, the children that have a diagnosis of ASD and the facilitators of the groups, will engage the children in social sessions, in hopes to build social relationships. The parents will fill out questionnaires as to the progress they see their children making. This pilot study sets out to answer the following two questions. Is participation in a social skills group beneficial for young children / adolescence with ASD from the child’s, Parents and the facilitator’s perspectives? The second question posed was, is there any improvement in the autistic child’s ability to communicate or interrelate socially. Methodology Based on a review of literature on Autism, a psychologist and a clinical psychologist planed a structured 5-week program, for one-hour sessions, one day a week. Only children with a diagnosis of ASD were invited. The children’s ages ranged from seven to 18. Using the qualitative method, the parental focus group was used to gather data and answer two research questions. Each parent received three questionnaires developed for the purpose of this evaluation. One was a pre- questionnaire, to be completed at the beginning of the groups, the post questionnaire, at the end of groups, and a review questionnaire, to be completed six months following the social skills groups. The questionnaires were used for the parents to rate their child’s current level of difficulties. Results and Discussions The high cost of one on one therapy for autistic children has become too high for caregivers and the need for alternative approaches was necessary. Evidence suggested that social skills groups for autistic children would be an alternative Dunlop, Knott and Mackay (2000). The information gathered from parent questionnaires and through observations from the facilitators and the higher functioning adolescents with ASD showed there was a need for social skills programs. Some parents felt their children benefitted and others seen no change. The feedback was very positive and most of the participants would like the social skills groups to continue. There were several areas identified within the program that needs fine-tuning such as, smaller groups, the level or severity of ASD the children have, longer duration of sessions without summer breaks and addressing how to manage the challenging behaviors some of the autistic children displayed, which prevented them from engaging socially within the groups. There was no time for one on one interaction, to encourage those children that did not socialize during the five-week program. The facilitators observed this and felt that it was an important issue to address along with the other recommendations above, when planning social skills programs. I choose this article because I am a parent of an autistic child and I am always looking for new treatment methods. I like to stay informed of all the new research on autism to share with my son. I think there is a need to socialize all persons with autism and the ideal of social skills groups cannot hurt; it can enhance the quality of life for the autistic child.

Arguments for Restricting the Supply Chain to Europe

Arguments for Restricting the Supply Chain to Europe Preface This report describes project work carried out in the Faculty of Arts, Computing, Engineering and Science at Sheffield Hallam University between June 2009 and January 2010. The submission of the report is in accordance with the requirements for the award of the degree of MSc Logistics and Supply Chain management under the auspices of the University. ANALYSIS OF THE ARGUMENTS FOR RESTRICTING THE SUPPLY CHAIN TO EUROPE Abstract This dissertation briefly discusses about the supply chain issues faced and their impact with respect to global supply chain. Also discusses about the need for smarter supply chain. In the recent European Union policies and trading benefits, a study is done on why not to trade locally than internationally by utilizing a proper supply chain system. This report analysis will also discuss about the recent developments in supply chain management that have concentrated on the benefit of global supply chain. The project investigates the case for limiting the supply chain to organizations within European Commission. In particular it identifies when it is better to source locally rather than globally. ABBREVIATION BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CIBC Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce CIPS Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply CSCMP Council of Supply Chain Management Professional EC European Commission ECB European Central Bank EIA Energy Information Administration EMU Economic and Monetary Union EU European Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment GDP Gross Domestic Product GM General Motors GVA Gross Value Added ICT Information and Communication Technologies IMF International Monetary Fund JIT Just-In-Time NBER National Bureau of Economic Research PLC Product Life Cycle PSC Procurement Strategy Council Q3 Quarter 3 RFID Radio Frequency Identification RSCM Reverse Supply Chain Management SME Small and medium enterprises TEU Twenty-foot equivalent TPR Trade Policy Review UN United Nation WTI West Texas Intermediate WTO World Trade Organization CHAPTER 1: Introduction This chapter discusses about the general agenda of research involved. 1.1 gives an outline about the background of the research. Section 1.2 will state about the objectives of the research. Section 1.3 will state about the scope involved and section 1.4 will present a structure of the dissertation and some brief summary of each chapter. In this section the reader would gain a birds eye image on what the research is about. 1.1 Background of Research The supply chain for the future is not to wait and react as the traditional way but the attitude is â€Å"drive fast†. Because of the demands, new technologies and new capabilities the vision on supply chain needs to be a more monitored and a smarter supply chain is what the world is looking for. After globalization the world has become a single unified market and the needs for trading is effectively high with more collaboration strategy. Due to globalization the recession which started in United States in financial crisis 2007-2009, it had spread across the world because of the inter dependence in global economy which resulted in a major downturn. According to IMF (international Monetary Fund), an economic growth of less than 3% or less is considered to be as a global recession. The recession has hit almost every country across the globe and after experiencing the tough time each one of them wants to self sustain in their internal economy. Because of the outsourcing mostly the products across countries away from Europe, It has been become in a format that Europe have disabled in some fields for the future. Either we would be transferring our industries to make as foreign direct investment in other nations or we would be making products based on our requirements in their specialized fields which would be in more dependent criteria as which cant be produced in house. Manufacturing companies and the business nowadays is going down and they are forced to think for a new way to compete and to produce products in cost effective manner and more customer oriented. The survival had become an important issue for the industries along with competition. Now it has an impact on the unemployment as because of companies started to move their new units in other countries because of cheap labor and availability of resources. Which in turn is a huge lose for the country and for the future as it would be affecting the countries growth as a whole. There are number of other strategies that have made the companies to go for a change in supply chain to get rid of various issues they experienced in the past. The mobile industry such as Nokia produces mobiles with various advance technologies and manufacture across the globe. The theft in the technology and the innovations of it has lead the local Asian market for an availability a far cheaper mobile with all the technologies of Nokia in local brand names. This makes the original manufacturer a vulnerable market and looses the value for product. Similarly, the Hongqi HQD is the car model which was released by manufacturer of china which is as same as Rolls Royce Phantom model. In automobile sector, Daewoo Matiz verses Chery QQ, Vauxhall Frontera verses Landwind, Honda CRV verses Laibao SRV, Mercedes C verses Geely Merrie 300, Neoplan Starliner verses Zonda A9 (Bus Model), Smart verses er. Chinese Smart, Toyota Prado verses Dadi Shuttle, Nissan XTrail verses Greatwall Sing, BMW 7 ve rses BYD F6 are the very interesting copied models far across every company of the worlds luxurious cars been produced in China in a large scale industries with conveniently a lower price. The interesting news is all that these cars are not only look alike the same in appearance and aesthetic, but also the performance and quality records is being similar to the original ones. The international court which handles these cases results in vain for the car manufacturers as the design produced has some variation than the copyrighted original ones. It crosses from automobiles, electronics, computers, pharma industries, telecom industries, electrical items, aerospace etc. The original origin company loses a very high investment in research and development to produce a new product and the rate of return for them takes ages than the actual predicted period. Shutting down or transferring the production plant has also become a part for industries. For example, Vestas, a wind power manufacturin g unit had built a new wind turbine production plant in China due to the local market demand and thereby keeping business profitable. The purpose and motivation for me to study in this topic is because I had been studying the various reasons behind the problems that the companies faced during recession and hard to survive criteria with more problems leaving them to bankruptcy. Even the giant manufacturers in automobiles such as General motors, Ford etc, were one of the victims who were about to face the bankruptcy. The other reasons includes the design theft, information leakage, irresponsive supply chain strategy, poor visibility in supply chain, vendor management, gap between supplier and customer in 3Ts (time, Transparency, Trust) , degree of control, responsiveness (change in market demand), lead time issues, global CO2 emissions, etc are the other threatening factors what the Business face. Hence, I decided to come up with a further study and development of my knowledge on these areas and come out with a report regarding the various controls that management could be able to gain to trade within near shore to s urvive and what are the strategies can be adopted to restrict the supply chain within Europe. This study has basically two main elements which deal about the various past experiences faced by the companies in sourcing across supply chain as well as future supply chain needs and the benefits and positive factors that show a better scope in near future for European market. It deals with the various concepts of supply chain, relationship management strategy in sourcing, and some strategies followed by world class companies. I believe that this dissertation would be useful as a reference for sourcing companies in future as well. Student might gain some benefits from this dissertation as this helps students to further understand the theories and other concepts involved in supply chain that have been dealt while considering some real case examples. 1.2 Objective of Research The aims of this dissertation are basically: 1) To analyze the current and past strategies in supply chain issues 2) To analyze about the expectation for future supply chain 3) To analyze the about the advantages in trading within European Union 4) To analyze the impacts of recession on Europe and UK 5) To study the various techniques used by the world class companies to overcome the supply chain issues 1.3 Scope of Research The scope has been narrowed down to European market in this research. The area of research has been identified after a deep analysis on the literature review. The literature review gives a general idea and background about the various supply chain requirements about the past and for future. The study is discussing about history of the European Union and trading benefits. The comparisons of the advantages and the benefits that could be available in the Europe have also been discussed. The limitations are that it is a general idea about the various issues in supply chain and a theory behind supply chain. The scope environment is for the very big companies who has already started practicing near sourcing and for the medium size companies. It would not be a better option of trading for the small companies. 1.4 Structure of thesis Chapter 1: Introduction The background of this dissertation will be introduced in this chapter. The objectives of the research are stated. Scope of the project is identified and the structure of the thesis is presented. The reader can obtain an overview of the thesis from this chapter. Chapter 2: Supply chain and Issues in Supply chain All the relevant information and materials has been gain from journals, articles, news, magazines, reference books and internet will be summarized, concluded and organized in a systematic way in both chapter 2 and chapter 3. In this chapter, general information about supply chain and Issues in supply chain faced will be presented. About the supply chain, smart supply chain, traditional issues, credit crunch impact on supply chain, various issues faced by the current and past sourcing business faced are discussed. The contents has discussed about the past and the present scenario. Chapter 3: European Union benefits and sourcing strategies This chapter mainly concentrates on the EU benefits provided for its fellow country members and the various advantages it has for the near and long future. The discussion about the logistical issues, Impact of recession on EU has also been made. Reader can identify a general idea about the benefits of EU for the future in trading within Europe. Chapter 4: Methodology This chapter discusses about the research design and methodology employed in this research. This report would carry based on the study on articles, journals, up to date news and reference books. In the literature review part, all the relevant information is compiled based on the summary of reading of reference books, journals and articles. In the case study part, several case studies of strategies adopted by world class manufacturers to counter the recession will be discussed. The strategies included the manufacturing strategies and marketing strategies. Chapter 5: Case study and Discussion In this chapter, several strategies adopted by various world class manufacturers are presented and some discussion will be made. The discussion part includes the understanding and comparison of the literature review with the case studies towards the strategy. Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendation This chapter will summarize this whole dissertation and point out several vital of the research. Limitation in this research will be carried out and recommendation for future research would be made. Chapter 7: References All the sources for this dissertation will be arranged according to alphabetical order in this chapter. Readers can refer to the sources for further study. CHAPTER 2: Supply chain and Issues in supply chain This chapter discusses mainly is to present some literature review and theory from journals, conferences, magazines, text books and online news. As it is literature review all the latest information is quoted and are compiled from internet. Section 2.1 share with a general introduction on supply chain management and the traditional supply chain management worries. Section 2.2 addresses the smart supply chain and the expectations in the smart supply chain and need for it. Section 2.3 cope for global supply chain issues faced while recession and before. Section 2.4 handles the issues in supply chain faced. 2.1 Supply Chain Management As per CIPS the definition of Supply chain could be defined as â€Å"The supply chain conceptually covers the entire physical process from obtaining the raw materials through all process steps until the finished product reaches the end consumer. Most supply chains consist of many separate companies, each linked by virtue of their part in satisfying the specific need of the end consumer.† Supply chain management may be thought of as the management of all activities aimed at satisfying the end consumer; as such it covers almost all activity within the organization. It has been suggested that it incorporates a number of key success factors which include a clear procurement strategy, effective control systems, and development of expertise. Supply chain management therefore represents and reflects a holistic approach to the operation of the organization. As per Stevens.J (1989), supply chain could be defined as a system whose constituent parts include material suppliers, production facilities, distribution services and customers linked together via the feed forward flow of materials and the feedback flow of information. Supply chain management is the oversight of materials, information and finances as they move in a process from supplier to manufacturer to wholesaler to retailer to consumer. Supply chain management involves coordinating and integrating these flows both within and among companies. The efficient supply chain management system is the one which concentrates in reducing inventory. The flow in supply chain is divided in to three main streams: the product flow, the information flow, the finances flow. 2.2.1 Traditional Supply chain issues Supply chain is not a very new term in business and management. Since the day from which trading begun in the world, supply chain has been a part of the business. The overcoming of the current issues and risks involved has become a part of supply chain management challenges. The four level supply chain issues stand in upstream from market place via the retailer, downstream flow activity, distribution and warehouse to factory and material flow in the form of products. There are more driving forces in a supply chain based on the industry because of the value adding operations involved. Based on (Towill, D.R., 1992), the light of information available the issues what a supply chain would get struck are perceived demand for products, which may be just a forecast from sales department, a production or value added process, information on the current performance, disturbance owing to machine / equipment or breakdowns, decision points, where the information is brought into action, transmission lags, decision rules, which is taken based on various internal decisions made in company for changing stock levels, placing new orders, etc. The basic problem in supply chain is the demand forecasting. The operations in the supply chain gets complicated by the demand forecast (Forrester, J.W. (1961)), The smaller the lead time has also a very important and critical role to play in determining the stability of supply chain (Inger et al.), especially as Companies move into just-in-time (JIT) operations. In practice JIT pushes the effects of unpredictability upstream in the supply chain (Mallman, D. (1995)). Apart from the lead time cycle time involved plays a very critical role. In a discussion of Dr. Carlos Mena, from Cranfield University, explains the longer distance movement is the more the cycle time involved in the supply chain. Where the problems faced by the companies include the degree of control, lead time issues, additional inventory, and most importantly the cash tied up in a single place for a very long time which could be used by the companies for various other investments and the fluctuating interest rates acr oss the companies for its money value is an interesting issue to concentrate. Other problems also include the responsiveness of the market that involved in the cycle time and delays or because of the excessive cycle time makes a very big problem and leads to trade off. The other issues faced in the traditional supply chain as per the report by S.Mehra on International journal of production research(Aug 2005), are the strategy involved in procurement as competition on product and price, driving inventory out of supply chain, complicated Communication towards supplier making complex Supplier relationships, higher customer expectations and higher variability in demand, Contract complication leading to huge loss of business, bad Anticipation in supply chain, bringing more suppliers and going for new products are getting more complicated, achieving the entire supply chain visibility and responsibility of suppliers and customers towards the requirements, Responding quickly and critical understanding on the business on contribution on revenue and Real time information sharing. 2.2.2 Smart Supply Chain The smart supply chain is the answer what the companies are expecting for because of the issues in supply chain faced by them and the need to go for a permanent solution. They have become used to supply chains day to day challenge because of the repeating issues. The smarter supply chain is nothing but monitoring the entire supply chain design with more focus on transparency in entire chain with more interconnected in network and relatively a good level of collaboration with supplier and customer. The following are some of the components of the smart supply chain and some discussion on its advantages have been cited. Supply chain reengineering: Supply chain problems are acute with long lead time replenishment and maintaining a believable and tolerable customer service in product availability. The supply chain reengineering is the key process of identifying and designating specific tasks to the staff by making a complete involvement of staff with a two way communication in terms of openness from management. It is atomizing the cost and time over improving the customer experience. Modifying the bad practices by identifying from the experience is a fundamental thing. Reducing cost is only key term in order to maintain and grow with margins in the current scenario. Considering the facts from the customer perspective and designing towards the source of the goods. It is done by gathering data, drawing the process map ideally starting from the customer point of view defining the problem statement, specific goal and measurable objective. A structured decision making system should be made based on prioritizing the resources and cost based on the fine target specified in the problem statement. These will give an idea of the actions to eliminate or to restructure the process for obtaining more efficient organizational structures. Challenges in current thinking give a more insight into the problem and which gives a prioritized list of alternatives to face the challenges. Planning state of identify ing the causes and preventive actions should be analyzed to restructure the design or process model recommending the risk considerations. . The hardest part of reengineering is not process redesigning it but to implement it. It involves change in culture and behavior not assistance. Active tracking is needed and degree of seriousness only defines a success or failure scenario in redesigning. As per the case study done by Littlewoods chain stores, the initiatives taken on reengineering includes a strong focus on customer management, redesign of the entire supply chain network from suppliers to stores in replacing the distribution chains and cross docking â€Å"flow through†, rebalancing the supplier base from far east to local procurement for quicker lead time and quick response, making a strong partnership with suppliers, evaluation of transportation costs by rationalizing the practices to single carried containers, reassessment of physical handling patterns, new design for better tracking and managing both product volumes and financial implications providing a scope to accelerate product flow in a more informed and cost effective way, an organizational aligned way and focus on the entire supply chain of improving the total performance and customer needs. Supply chain E-Procurement As a major part of supply chain management (Leenders and Fearon, 1997; Monczka et al., 1997), supply chains in procurement are traditionally supported by information technology. The main idea of e-procurement is to include the end-user (requester) in the procurement process via an electronic multi-vendor catalog and to close the process gaps (e.g. re-entry of data) in the supply chain for indirect goods (Neef, 2001). According to Dolmetsch et al., (2000), e-procurement deals with the management of supply chains in the procurement of indirect goods are based on Internet information systems and also e-markets. The e-procurement reduces the operational functions, with increased efficiencies regarding the process and procurement costs. (Aberdeen Group, 2001); According to these studies,(Eyholzer and Hunziker, 2000; Arthur Andersen Business Consulting, 2001). e-procurement enables companies to decentralize operational procurement processes and centralize strategic procurement processes as a result of the higher supply chain transparency provided by e-procurement systems. The use of technologies like Internet in procurement is concentrated mainly in realizing the needs and to react faster and in more efficient operational procurement processes which bypass the purchasing department and enable those people to concentrate on more strategic tasks (Giunipero and Sawchuk, 2000;). In e-procurement, end users could directly search for and select products in electronic catalogs which are authorized and negotiated by strategic procurement in advance example- E-bay, Amazon etc. The issues are really a challenge in identifying the right e-procurement strategy which is crucial to the success by selecting the right commodity of a companys solution. A second strategy is one which uses outwardly hosting catalogs on a suppliers website is also could be called the punch out mechanism. The punch out scenario helps customers to access external catalogs via their own e-procurement system (Kalakota and Robinson, 2001). A third strategy would be the use of external multi-vendor product catalogs that are hosted on electronic marketplaces. Similarly, implementing an e-procurement system in isolation without considering the entire procurement process and the systems involved will not be sufficient (Deise et al., 2000). Technological approach With todays emphasis on the need for improvements on cost cutting and streamlining expenses, many companies are looking out for improving their bottom lines with more effective supply chains. Technology implementation is a key term which could be used in supply chain to relate and improve the supply chain beneficiaries. By understanding the process clearly involved in supply chain processes makes supplier collaboration on a whole leading a better job in avoiding risks and much lesser repetition of mistakes. Usage of technologies like RFID, simulation, better communication software etc, leading to an advantaged scenario in understanding and maintaining supply chain visibility, online tracking, traffic management, warehouse management, reporting and analysis, order management and labor management. In the Supply chain digest 2007, the various supply chain technologies and strategies that could be implemented in supply chain are cited. E-auctions for bidding contract, Labor management system in distribution a collaboration of software, engineering and mindset to improve the logistics productivity Spend management visibility software used to calculate the spending of company, when, where and with what vendors providing the expensive vendor management Demand management by utilizing the use of technological tools, integrating the demand and sales side of the company by unifying the financial and operations plan. The consistent feedback on a regular basis brings about a structural demand. Supplier portals providing a demand visibility from purchase order to advance ship notice and generating an inbound shipment management by providing barcodes, RFID or other automated tracking technologies. Network optimization supporting global sourcing strategies, more short time inventory planning, new product introductions, sales and operations planning could be optimally balanced. Transportation management system software technologies used by shippers to calculate, plan and execute connection electronically with carriers by reducing costs optimal mode of transport selection, carrier assignment, consolidation of shipment and use of continuous moves in freight. Strategic / Global sourcing More integrated approach towards supplier selection and procurement considering the facts of time, cost, purchasing power by considering the strategies tied to off shoring and global sourcing strategies. Wireless in warehouse usage of wireless technologies inside the warehousing leads to a clear picture of the stock / inventory available and helps in calculating the cost involved in storage and money as inventory. As well as picking in warehouse should be automated where possible, so more visibility is available. Yard management system and Dock door scheduling It gives a visibility in yard inventory and schedules, executes on inbound and outbound docks. Reverse Supply Chain management (RSCM) The Council of Logistics Management defined reverse supply chain as the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost effective flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, finished goods and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing value or proper disposal. RSCM is defined as the effective and efficient management of the series of activities required to retrieve a product from a customer in order to either dispose of it or recover value (Prahinski and KocabasoÄÅ ¸lu , 2006; Defee et al., 2009). Fleischmann et al., (2000) base the growing importance of RSCM basically on agreements for excess products and extended producer responsibilities. As per Harvard Business review 2002, In general, the companies that create what so called as a closed-loop system, have enjoyed most success with RSCM by having a close coordination in their forward supply chain. For example, they make product design and manufacturing decisions with eventual recycling and reconditioning in mind. The definition of reverse logistics from an environmental perspective in the forward supply chain is focus on taking return of recyclable or reusable products and materials. Reverse logistics, flow of materials from the customer to forward supply chain, is the least studied operational function (Sarkis, 2003). 2.3 Global supply chain issues Oil pricing The growth in oil price will always lead to a substantial slow down in international trade because of the transportation dependency on oil market. According to the report of EIA (Energy Information Administration) (2007) the 96% of the US transportation works on the fuels, 43% of the industries runs on the fuels, 21% of the residential homes and commercials and 3% of the electric power works with the help of the fuels. This means that the US economy is related to each other and this made an impact in all areas due to the increase in oil price. In the June 2008 the price of WTI reached the maximum and that was 145 US dollars per barrel the all time highest price which US market has seen. So this made the price for the gasoline high in July 2008 to 4.10$. Based on a CIBC report 2008, the trade price increases by 1 % in every increase in 1$ for a barrel. Because of the increase in oil price directly affects the wages to decline and increased product cost. The increase in oil prices lead s to elimination of importers and need to go for local suppliers. The analysis of rising oil prices would impact profitability as well as the core supply chain design. The impact for a supply chain design would lead to tradeoffs among transportation, inventory, and distribution and in all sections of supply chain. By Dr Bassam Fattouh (2007), the volatility of oil prices had lead to a challenge for the supply chain and could slow down economic growth, also can cause inflation pressures, can Create global imbalances, Volatility increases uncertainty discourages much needed investment in oil sector, tight market conditions raised fears about oil scarcity and concerns about energy security. Collaboration The measurement of supply chain collaboration has received a little attention to date (Sanders and Premus, 2005: Jap, 1999: Injazz and Paulraj, 2004). At about that time, an ongoing discussion emerged that supply chain management should be built around the integration of trading partners (Barratt and Oliveira, 2001), the sharing of information and benefits (McLaren, 2004) and the collaboration of organizations (Patrakosol and Olson, 2006). Collaborative Planning is a first step on the road to Extended Supply Chain Management with specific customers It has a seamless fit with PSC (Procurement Strategy Council) strategy and as such is an excellent opportunity to create Customer Intimacy Through follow up implementations, we can created the chances to start gaining the first Business Benefits. Economist Intelligence unit (2006) says that the cooperation of the government and UN to designate the standards are one of the key issues faced by the SMEs. Manufacturers are more concerned about the interoperability than the responds overall. A majority of survey results cites that trust in payment would be certain as a major factor that assists the companies to integrate their operations with global supply chain. In a report of ECOlogistics (2007) explains the communication gap in between the supplier and customer leads to problems in scalable issues regarding quality. The collaboration missing of the government regarding with the trading sector leads to complication in global supply network. Variation in theme of a support by the market incentives, and networks of local, social, political and moral enforcement leading to missing in regulatory systems. There â€Å"glocal† needs to be implemented, which means the global standards in the local market, Which in turn produces cost effective system with improved standards. Public Private Partnerships in Standards Compliance Arguments for Restricting the Supply Chain to Europe Arguments for Restricting the Supply Chain to Europe Preface This report describes project work carried out in the Faculty of Arts, Computing, Engineering and Science at Sheffield Hallam University between June 2009 and January 2010. The submission of the report is in accordance with the requirements for the award of the degree of MSc Logistics and Supply Chain management under the auspices of the University. ANALYSIS OF THE ARGUMENTS FOR RESTRICTING THE SUPPLY CHAIN TO EUROPE Abstract This dissertation briefly discusses about the supply chain issues faced and their impact with respect to global supply chain. Also discusses about the need for smarter supply chain. In the recent European Union policies and trading benefits, a study is done on why not to trade locally than internationally by utilizing a proper supply chain system. This report analysis will also discuss about the recent developments in supply chain management that have concentrated on the benefit of global supply chain. The project investigates the case for limiting the supply chain to organizations within European Commission. In particular it identifies when it is better to source locally rather than globally. ABBREVIATION BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CIBC Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce CIPS Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply CSCMP Council of Supply Chain Management Professional EC European Commission ECB European Central Bank EIA Energy Information Administration EMU Economic and Monetary Union EU European Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment GDP Gross Domestic Product GM General Motors GVA Gross Value Added ICT Information and Communication Technologies IMF International Monetary Fund JIT Just-In-Time NBER National Bureau of Economic Research PLC Product Life Cycle PSC Procurement Strategy Council Q3 Quarter 3 RFID Radio Frequency Identification RSCM Reverse Supply Chain Management SME Small and medium enterprises TEU Twenty-foot equivalent TPR Trade Policy Review UN United Nation WTI West Texas Intermediate WTO World Trade Organization CHAPTER 1: Introduction This chapter discusses about the general agenda of research involved. 1.1 gives an outline about the background of the research. Section 1.2 will state about the objectives of the research. Section 1.3 will state about the scope involved and section 1.4 will present a structure of the dissertation and some brief summary of each chapter. In this section the reader would gain a birds eye image on what the research is about. 1.1 Background of Research The supply chain for the future is not to wait and react as the traditional way but the attitude is â€Å"drive fast†. Because of the demands, new technologies and new capabilities the vision on supply chain needs to be a more monitored and a smarter supply chain is what the world is looking for. After globalization the world has become a single unified market and the needs for trading is effectively high with more collaboration strategy. Due to globalization the recession which started in United States in financial crisis 2007-2009, it had spread across the world because of the inter dependence in global economy which resulted in a major downturn. According to IMF (international Monetary Fund), an economic growth of less than 3% or less is considered to be as a global recession. The recession has hit almost every country across the globe and after experiencing the tough time each one of them wants to self sustain in their internal economy. Because of the outsourcing mostly the products across countries away from Europe, It has been become in a format that Europe have disabled in some fields for the future. Either we would be transferring our industries to make as foreign direct investment in other nations or we would be making products based on our requirements in their specialized fields which would be in more dependent criteria as which cant be produced in house. Manufacturing companies and the business nowadays is going down and they are forced to think for a new way to compete and to produce products in cost effective manner and more customer oriented. The survival had become an important issue for the industries along with competition. Now it has an impact on the unemployment as because of companies started to move their new units in other countries because of cheap labor and availability of resources. Which in turn is a huge lose for the country and for the future as it would be affecting the countries growth as a whole. There are number of other strategies that have made the companies to go for a change in supply chain to get rid of various issues they experienced in the past. The mobile industry such as Nokia produces mobiles with various advance technologies and manufacture across the globe. The theft in the technology and the innovations of it has lead the local Asian market for an availability a far cheaper mobile with all the technologies of Nokia in local brand names. This makes the original manufacturer a vulnerable market and looses the value for product. Similarly, the Hongqi HQD is the car model which was released by manufacturer of china which is as same as Rolls Royce Phantom model. In automobile sector, Daewoo Matiz verses Chery QQ, Vauxhall Frontera verses Landwind, Honda CRV verses Laibao SRV, Mercedes C verses Geely Merrie 300, Neoplan Starliner verses Zonda A9 (Bus Model), Smart verses er. Chinese Smart, Toyota Prado verses Dadi Shuttle, Nissan XTrail verses Greatwall Sing, BMW 7 ve rses BYD F6 are the very interesting copied models far across every company of the worlds luxurious cars been produced in China in a large scale industries with conveniently a lower price. The interesting news is all that these cars are not only look alike the same in appearance and aesthetic, but also the performance and quality records is being similar to the original ones. The international court which handles these cases results in vain for the car manufacturers as the design produced has some variation than the copyrighted original ones. It crosses from automobiles, electronics, computers, pharma industries, telecom industries, electrical items, aerospace etc. The original origin company loses a very high investment in research and development to produce a new product and the rate of return for them takes ages than the actual predicted period. Shutting down or transferring the production plant has also become a part for industries. For example, Vestas, a wind power manufacturin g unit had built a new wind turbine production plant in China due to the local market demand and thereby keeping business profitable. The purpose and motivation for me to study in this topic is because I had been studying the various reasons behind the problems that the companies faced during recession and hard to survive criteria with more problems leaving them to bankruptcy. Even the giant manufacturers in automobiles such as General motors, Ford etc, were one of the victims who were about to face the bankruptcy. The other reasons includes the design theft, information leakage, irresponsive supply chain strategy, poor visibility in supply chain, vendor management, gap between supplier and customer in 3Ts (time, Transparency, Trust) , degree of control, responsiveness (change in market demand), lead time issues, global CO2 emissions, etc are the other threatening factors what the Business face. Hence, I decided to come up with a further study and development of my knowledge on these areas and come out with a report regarding the various controls that management could be able to gain to trade within near shore to s urvive and what are the strategies can be adopted to restrict the supply chain within Europe. This study has basically two main elements which deal about the various past experiences faced by the companies in sourcing across supply chain as well as future supply chain needs and the benefits and positive factors that show a better scope in near future for European market. It deals with the various concepts of supply chain, relationship management strategy in sourcing, and some strategies followed by world class companies. I believe that this dissertation would be useful as a reference for sourcing companies in future as well. Student might gain some benefits from this dissertation as this helps students to further understand the theories and other concepts involved in supply chain that have been dealt while considering some real case examples. 1.2 Objective of Research The aims of this dissertation are basically: 1) To analyze the current and past strategies in supply chain issues 2) To analyze about the expectation for future supply chain 3) To analyze the about the advantages in trading within European Union 4) To analyze the impacts of recession on Europe and UK 5) To study the various techniques used by the world class companies to overcome the supply chain issues 1.3 Scope of Research The scope has been narrowed down to European market in this research. The area of research has been identified after a deep analysis on the literature review. The literature review gives a general idea and background about the various supply chain requirements about the past and for future. The study is discussing about history of the European Union and trading benefits. The comparisons of the advantages and the benefits that could be available in the Europe have also been discussed. The limitations are that it is a general idea about the various issues in supply chain and a theory behind supply chain. The scope environment is for the very big companies who has already started practicing near sourcing and for the medium size companies. It would not be a better option of trading for the small companies. 1.4 Structure of thesis Chapter 1: Introduction The background of this dissertation will be introduced in this chapter. The objectives of the research are stated. Scope of the project is identified and the structure of the thesis is presented. The reader can obtain an overview of the thesis from this chapter. Chapter 2: Supply chain and Issues in Supply chain All the relevant information and materials has been gain from journals, articles, news, magazines, reference books and internet will be summarized, concluded and organized in a systematic way in both chapter 2 and chapter 3. In this chapter, general information about supply chain and Issues in supply chain faced will be presented. About the supply chain, smart supply chain, traditional issues, credit crunch impact on supply chain, various issues faced by the current and past sourcing business faced are discussed. The contents has discussed about the past and the present scenario. Chapter 3: European Union benefits and sourcing strategies This chapter mainly concentrates on the EU benefits provided for its fellow country members and the various advantages it has for the near and long future. The discussion about the logistical issues, Impact of recession on EU has also been made. Reader can identify a general idea about the benefits of EU for the future in trading within Europe. Chapter 4: Methodology This chapter discusses about the research design and methodology employed in this research. This report would carry based on the study on articles, journals, up to date news and reference books. In the literature review part, all the relevant information is compiled based on the summary of reading of reference books, journals and articles. In the case study part, several case studies of strategies adopted by world class manufacturers to counter the recession will be discussed. The strategies included the manufacturing strategies and marketing strategies. Chapter 5: Case study and Discussion In this chapter, several strategies adopted by various world class manufacturers are presented and some discussion will be made. The discussion part includes the understanding and comparison of the literature review with the case studies towards the strategy. Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendation This chapter will summarize this whole dissertation and point out several vital of the research. Limitation in this research will be carried out and recommendation for future research would be made. Chapter 7: References All the sources for this dissertation will be arranged according to alphabetical order in this chapter. Readers can refer to the sources for further study. CHAPTER 2: Supply chain and Issues in supply chain This chapter discusses mainly is to present some literature review and theory from journals, conferences, magazines, text books and online news. As it is literature review all the latest information is quoted and are compiled from internet. Section 2.1 share with a general introduction on supply chain management and the traditional supply chain management worries. Section 2.2 addresses the smart supply chain and the expectations in the smart supply chain and need for it. Section 2.3 cope for global supply chain issues faced while recession and before. Section 2.4 handles the issues in supply chain faced. 2.1 Supply Chain Management As per CIPS the definition of Supply chain could be defined as â€Å"The supply chain conceptually covers the entire physical process from obtaining the raw materials through all process steps until the finished product reaches the end consumer. Most supply chains consist of many separate companies, each linked by virtue of their part in satisfying the specific need of the end consumer.† Supply chain management may be thought of as the management of all activities aimed at satisfying the end consumer; as such it covers almost all activity within the organization. It has been suggested that it incorporates a number of key success factors which include a clear procurement strategy, effective control systems, and development of expertise. Supply chain management therefore represents and reflects a holistic approach to the operation of the organization. As per Stevens.J (1989), supply chain could be defined as a system whose constituent parts include material suppliers, production facilities, distribution services and customers linked together via the feed forward flow of materials and the feedback flow of information. Supply chain management is the oversight of materials, information and finances as they move in a process from supplier to manufacturer to wholesaler to retailer to consumer. Supply chain management involves coordinating and integrating these flows both within and among companies. The efficient supply chain management system is the one which concentrates in reducing inventory. The flow in supply chain is divided in to three main streams: the product flow, the information flow, the finances flow. 2.2.1 Traditional Supply chain issues Supply chain is not a very new term in business and management. Since the day from which trading begun in the world, supply chain has been a part of the business. The overcoming of the current issues and risks involved has become a part of supply chain management challenges. The four level supply chain issues stand in upstream from market place via the retailer, downstream flow activity, distribution and warehouse to factory and material flow in the form of products. There are more driving forces in a supply chain based on the industry because of the value adding operations involved. Based on (Towill, D.R., 1992), the light of information available the issues what a supply chain would get struck are perceived demand for products, which may be just a forecast from sales department, a production or value added process, information on the current performance, disturbance owing to machine / equipment or breakdowns, decision points, where the information is brought into action, transmission lags, decision rules, which is taken based on various internal decisions made in company for changing stock levels, placing new orders, etc. The basic problem in supply chain is the demand forecasting. The operations in the supply chain gets complicated by the demand forecast (Forrester, J.W. (1961)), The smaller the lead time has also a very important and critical role to play in determining the stability of supply chain (Inger et al.), especially as Companies move into just-in-time (JIT) operations. In practice JIT pushes the effects of unpredictability upstream in the supply chain (Mallman, D. (1995)). Apart from the lead time cycle time involved plays a very critical role. In a discussion of Dr. Carlos Mena, from Cranfield University, explains the longer distance movement is the more the cycle time involved in the supply chain. Where the problems faced by the companies include the degree of control, lead time issues, additional inventory, and most importantly the cash tied up in a single place for a very long time which could be used by the companies for various other investments and the fluctuating interest rates acr oss the companies for its money value is an interesting issue to concentrate. Other problems also include the responsiveness of the market that involved in the cycle time and delays or because of the excessive cycle time makes a very big problem and leads to trade off. The other issues faced in the traditional supply chain as per the report by S.Mehra on International journal of production research(Aug 2005), are the strategy involved in procurement as competition on product and price, driving inventory out of supply chain, complicated Communication towards supplier making complex Supplier relationships, higher customer expectations and higher variability in demand, Contract complication leading to huge loss of business, bad Anticipation in supply chain, bringing more suppliers and going for new products are getting more complicated, achieving the entire supply chain visibility and responsibility of suppliers and customers towards the requirements, Responding quickly and critical understanding on the business on contribution on revenue and Real time information sharing. 2.2.2 Smart Supply Chain The smart supply chain is the answer what the companies are expecting for because of the issues in supply chain faced by them and the need to go for a permanent solution. They have become used to supply chains day to day challenge because of the repeating issues. The smarter supply chain is nothing but monitoring the entire supply chain design with more focus on transparency in entire chain with more interconnected in network and relatively a good level of collaboration with supplier and customer. The following are some of the components of the smart supply chain and some discussion on its advantages have been cited. Supply chain reengineering: Supply chain problems are acute with long lead time replenishment and maintaining a believable and tolerable customer service in product availability. The supply chain reengineering is the key process of identifying and designating specific tasks to the staff by making a complete involvement of staff with a two way communication in terms of openness from management. It is atomizing the cost and time over improving the customer experience. Modifying the bad practices by identifying from the experience is a fundamental thing. Reducing cost is only key term in order to maintain and grow with margins in the current scenario. Considering the facts from the customer perspective and designing towards the source of the goods. It is done by gathering data, drawing the process map ideally starting from the customer point of view defining the problem statement, specific goal and measurable objective. A structured decision making system should be made based on prioritizing the resources and cost based on the fine target specified in the problem statement. These will give an idea of the actions to eliminate or to restructure the process for obtaining more efficient organizational structures. Challenges in current thinking give a more insight into the problem and which gives a prioritized list of alternatives to face the challenges. Planning state of identify ing the causes and preventive actions should be analyzed to restructure the design or process model recommending the risk considerations. . The hardest part of reengineering is not process redesigning it but to implement it. It involves change in culture and behavior not assistance. Active tracking is needed and degree of seriousness only defines a success or failure scenario in redesigning. As per the case study done by Littlewoods chain stores, the initiatives taken on reengineering includes a strong focus on customer management, redesign of the entire supply chain network from suppliers to stores in replacing the distribution chains and cross docking â€Å"flow through†, rebalancing the supplier base from far east to local procurement for quicker lead time and quick response, making a strong partnership with suppliers, evaluation of transportation costs by rationalizing the practices to single carried containers, reassessment of physical handling patterns, new design for better tracking and managing both product volumes and financial implications providing a scope to accelerate product flow in a more informed and cost effective way, an organizational aligned way and focus on the entire supply chain of improving the total performance and customer needs. Supply chain E-Procurement As a major part of supply chain management (Leenders and Fearon, 1997; Monczka et al., 1997), supply chains in procurement are traditionally supported by information technology. The main idea of e-procurement is to include the end-user (requester) in the procurement process via an electronic multi-vendor catalog and to close the process gaps (e.g. re-entry of data) in the supply chain for indirect goods (Neef, 2001). According to Dolmetsch et al., (2000), e-procurement deals with the management of supply chains in the procurement of indirect goods are based on Internet information systems and also e-markets. The e-procurement reduces the operational functions, with increased efficiencies regarding the process and procurement costs. (Aberdeen Group, 2001); According to these studies,(Eyholzer and Hunziker, 2000; Arthur Andersen Business Consulting, 2001). e-procurement enables companies to decentralize operational procurement processes and centralize strategic procurement processes as a result of the higher supply chain transparency provided by e-procurement systems. The use of technologies like Internet in procurement is concentrated mainly in realizing the needs and to react faster and in more efficient operational procurement processes which bypass the purchasing department and enable those people to concentrate on more strategic tasks (Giunipero and Sawchuk, 2000;). In e-procurement, end users could directly search for and select products in electronic catalogs which are authorized and negotiated by strategic procurement in advance example- E-bay, Amazon etc. The issues are really a challenge in identifying the right e-procurement strategy which is crucial to the success by selecting the right commodity of a companys solution. A second strategy is one which uses outwardly hosting catalogs on a suppliers website is also could be called the punch out mechanism. The punch out scenario helps customers to access external catalogs via their own e-procurement system (Kalakota and Robinson, 2001). A third strategy would be the use of external multi-vendor product catalogs that are hosted on electronic marketplaces. Similarly, implementing an e-procurement system in isolation without considering the entire procurement process and the systems involved will not be sufficient (Deise et al., 2000). Technological approach With todays emphasis on the need for improvements on cost cutting and streamlining expenses, many companies are looking out for improving their bottom lines with more effective supply chains. Technology implementation is a key term which could be used in supply chain to relate and improve the supply chain beneficiaries. By understanding the process clearly involved in supply chain processes makes supplier collaboration on a whole leading a better job in avoiding risks and much lesser repetition of mistakes. Usage of technologies like RFID, simulation, better communication software etc, leading to an advantaged scenario in understanding and maintaining supply chain visibility, online tracking, traffic management, warehouse management, reporting and analysis, order management and labor management. In the Supply chain digest 2007, the various supply chain technologies and strategies that could be implemented in supply chain are cited. E-auctions for bidding contract, Labor management system in distribution a collaboration of software, engineering and mindset to improve the logistics productivity Spend management visibility software used to calculate the spending of company, when, where and with what vendors providing the expensive vendor management Demand management by utilizing the use of technological tools, integrating the demand and sales side of the company by unifying the financial and operations plan. The consistent feedback on a regular basis brings about a structural demand. Supplier portals providing a demand visibility from purchase order to advance ship notice and generating an inbound shipment management by providing barcodes, RFID or other automated tracking technologies. Network optimization supporting global sourcing strategies, more short time inventory planning, new product introductions, sales and operations planning could be optimally balanced. Transportation management system software technologies used by shippers to calculate, plan and execute connection electronically with carriers by reducing costs optimal mode of transport selection, carrier assignment, consolidation of shipment and use of continuous moves in freight. Strategic / Global sourcing More integrated approach towards supplier selection and procurement considering the facts of time, cost, purchasing power by considering the strategies tied to off shoring and global sourcing strategies. Wireless in warehouse usage of wireless technologies inside the warehousing leads to a clear picture of the stock / inventory available and helps in calculating the cost involved in storage and money as inventory. As well as picking in warehouse should be automated where possible, so more visibility is available. Yard management system and Dock door scheduling It gives a visibility in yard inventory and schedules, executes on inbound and outbound docks. Reverse Supply Chain management (RSCM) The Council of Logistics Management defined reverse supply chain as the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost effective flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, finished goods and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing value or proper disposal. RSCM is defined as the effective and efficient management of the series of activities required to retrieve a product from a customer in order to either dispose of it or recover value (Prahinski and KocabasoÄÅ ¸lu , 2006; Defee et al., 2009). Fleischmann et al., (2000) base the growing importance of RSCM basically on agreements for excess products and extended producer responsibilities. As per Harvard Business review 2002, In general, the companies that create what so called as a closed-loop system, have enjoyed most success with RSCM by having a close coordination in their forward supply chain. For example, they make product design and manufacturing decisions with eventual recycling and reconditioning in mind. The definition of reverse logistics from an environmental perspective in the forward supply chain is focus on taking return of recyclable or reusable products and materials. Reverse logistics, flow of materials from the customer to forward supply chain, is the least studied operational function (Sarkis, 2003). 2.3 Global supply chain issues Oil pricing The growth in oil price will always lead to a substantial slow down in international trade because of the transportation dependency on oil market. According to the report of EIA (Energy Information Administration) (2007) the 96% of the US transportation works on the fuels, 43% of the industries runs on the fuels, 21% of the residential homes and commercials and 3% of the electric power works with the help of the fuels. This means that the US economy is related to each other and this made an impact in all areas due to the increase in oil price. In the June 2008 the price of WTI reached the maximum and that was 145 US dollars per barrel the all time highest price which US market has seen. So this made the price for the gasoline high in July 2008 to 4.10$. Based on a CIBC report 2008, the trade price increases by 1 % in every increase in 1$ for a barrel. Because of the increase in oil price directly affects the wages to decline and increased product cost. The increase in oil prices lead s to elimination of importers and need to go for local suppliers. The analysis of rising oil prices would impact profitability as well as the core supply chain design. The impact for a supply chain design would lead to tradeoffs among transportation, inventory, and distribution and in all sections of supply chain. By Dr Bassam Fattouh (2007), the volatility of oil prices had lead to a challenge for the supply chain and could slow down economic growth, also can cause inflation pressures, can Create global imbalances, Volatility increases uncertainty discourages much needed investment in oil sector, tight market conditions raised fears about oil scarcity and concerns about energy security. Collaboration The measurement of supply chain collaboration has received a little attention to date (Sanders and Premus, 2005: Jap, 1999: Injazz and Paulraj, 2004). At about that time, an ongoing discussion emerged that supply chain management should be built around the integration of trading partners (Barratt and Oliveira, 2001), the sharing of information and benefits (McLaren, 2004) and the collaboration of organizations (Patrakosol and Olson, 2006). Collaborative Planning is a first step on the road to Extended Supply Chain Management with specific customers It has a seamless fit with PSC (Procurement Strategy Council) strategy and as such is an excellent opportunity to create Customer Intimacy Through follow up implementations, we can created the chances to start gaining the first Business Benefits. Economist Intelligence unit (2006) says that the cooperation of the government and UN to designate the standards are one of the key issues faced by the SMEs. Manufacturers are more concerned about the interoperability than the responds overall. A majority of survey results cites that trust in payment would be certain as a major factor that assists the companies to integrate their operations with global supply chain. In a report of ECOlogistics (2007) explains the communication gap in between the supplier and customer leads to problems in scalable issues regarding quality. The collaboration missing of the government regarding with the trading sector leads to complication in global supply network. Variation in theme of a support by the market incentives, and networks of local, social, political and moral enforcement leading to missing in regulatory systems. There â€Å"glocal† needs to be implemented, which means the global standards in the local market, Which in turn produces cost effective system with improved standards. Public Private Partnerships in Standards Compliance

Literature Review On Soil Erosion

Literature Review On Soil Erosion The Latin word erodere, (meaning to gnaw away) is the origin of the word erosion (Roose, 1996). Soil Erosion is the physical removal of topsoil by various agents, including falling raindrops, water flowing over the soil profile and gravitational pull (Lal 1990). The Soil Science Society of America defines erosion as the wearing away of the land surface by running water, wind, ice or other geological agents, including such processes as gravitational creep (SCSA, 1982). Physical erosion involves the detachment and transportation of insoluble soil particles (sand, silt and organic matter). Removal of soluble material as dissolved substances is called chemical erosion and this maybe caused by surface runoff or subsurface flow where the water moves from one layer to another within the soil profile (Lal 1990). According to ASCE, 1975, the physical processes in soil erosion include detachment of soil particles, their transportation and subsequent deposition of soil sediments downslope by raindrop impact and runoff over the soil surface. Rainfall is the most important detaching agent (Morgan and Davidson 1986; Lal, 1990) followed by overland flow in entraining soil particles (Lal 1990). The process of soil erosion occurs in three main steps, detachment of soil particles, transportation and deposition of soil particles downslope by raindrop impact and runoff over the soil surface (ASCE 1975; Morgan and Davidson, 1986, Lal 1990) followed by overland flow in entraining soil particles (Lal, 1990). Soil erosion reduces soil productivity by physical loss of topsoil, reduction in rooting depth and loss of water. In contrast soil, soil depletion means loss or decline of soil fertility due to crop removal or removal of nutrients by eluviations from water passing through the soil profile (Lal, 1990). Sedimentation however, causes off site effects like degradation of basins, accumulation of silts in water reservoirs and burial of low-lying productive areas and other problems (Lal, 1990). Sediments is the main cause of pollution and eutrophication (Lal, 1990). According to Lal 1990, soil degradation may be caused by accelerated soil erosion, depletion through intensive land use , deterioration in soil structure, changes in soil pH, leaching, salt accumulation, build up of toxic elelments such as aluminum or zinc, excessive inundation leading to reduced soil conditions and poor aeration. Soil Erosion is the most serious and least reversible form of land degradation (Lal, 1977; El-Swaify, Dangler and Amstrong, 1982). Soil erosion and soil loss , according to Lal (1990) have adverse effects on agriculture because they deplete the soils productivity and diminish the resourse base. 2.2 Soil Erosion Process Geologic erosion can be caused by a number of natural agents including rainfall, flowing water and ice, wind and the the mass movement of soil bodies under the action of gravity which cause the loosened or dissolved earthy and rock materials to be removed from a place and eventually deposited to a new location (Lal,1990; Morgan and Davidson, 1986). The Soil Science Society of America (SCSA, 1982) described geologic erosion as the normal or natural erosion caused by geologic processes acting over long periods and resulting in the wearing away of mountains, the building up of flood plains, coastal plains. Etc. The slow and constructive natural soil erosion process has been significantly accelerated by human activities of poor farming practices, overgrazing, ground clearing for construction, logging and mining (Lo, 1990). Accelerated erosion not only affects the soil but also the environment and is the primary cause of soil degradation (Lal, 1990). Agriculture has been identified as th e primary cause of accelerated soil erosion (Pimentel, 1976). 2.3 Soil Characteristics in the Tropics Extremes of climate and wide variety of parent materials cause great contrast of soil properties in the tropics from soils in other temperate regions. In the tropics soils are highly variable and diverse like the vegetation (Sanchez and Buoi, 1975; Van Wambeke, 1992). The main soil types are alfisols, oxisols, ultisols and inceptisols (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropical soils low in weatherable minerals and basic cations (sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium) resulted from continuous weathering of parent materials (Lo, 1990). The ability of these soils to keep plant nutrients is largely dependent on the humus content found in plant biomass and the organic matter (Rose,1993). The inactivity of soil mineral constituents (kaolin and sesquioxides) in these soils, causes deficiency in crop nutrients, lowers the capacity to retain basic cations, limits active relationship with organic matter and excessively immobilizes phosphates and related anions, a condition which are highly toxic to plant roots (Lo, 1990). Crop production in tropical soils are constrained by primarily aluminum- derived soil acidity and infertility but generally their physical properties are favourable (El-Swaify, 1990). Tropic soils have moderate to high permeability under natural conditions, but susceptible to slaking and development of impermeable crust upon action of raindrops and as a result runoff increases with continuous cultivation (Lal, 1982). This crusting cause insignificant reduction of filtration rate, increasing water runoff which leads to acceleration of soil erosion (Falayl and Lal, 1979). It is important to note however that heavy and intense rains cause severe erosion in the tropics (Morgan, 1974; Wilkinson 1975; Amezquita and Forsythe, 1975; Lal 1976; Aina, Lal and Taylor, 1977; Bois, 1978; Sheng 1982). 2.4 Soil Erosion on Steep Slope According to Lal 1990, Steeplands refer to lands with a slope gradient greater than 20%. It is important to note however that flat undulating lands have a great potential for crop production and agricultural development. Due to the possibility of soil erosion and the problem of mechanization, the steep areas are considered marginal for agriculture production (Lal, 1990). The difficult topography in steepland agriculture restricts mechanizations of operations thus, reducing all agricultural activities (land preparation, cultivation and harvesting), limiting the farmer in scale and efficiency. Inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides have to be carried manually by the farmer. As a resulted they are used scarcely. Observably any increase in the use of these agricultural inputs will result in decline in he farmers profits from the generally lower agricultural field (Benvenuti, 1988). For all these reasons steepland farmers tend to concentrate in high value crop production of limited scale (Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad 1990). It is important to note however that farmers prefer steepslopes due to cultural hand cultivation, planting and harvesting can be done in an upright fashion (Williams and Walter, 1988). Futher more subsistence farmers are found on steep slopes because of more favourable environmental conditions such as lower temperatures, reduced diseases and h igher reliability of rainfall. (Hurni, 1988). In the tropics, removal of forest vegetation causes excessive leaching and accelerated soil nutrient loss. Being highly weathered soil types , their contained minerals generally have poor ability to retain sorbed nutrients against leaching. Clay soils with high residualmiron contents are considered superior in resistance to runoff caused soil erosion; thus, soils emanated from basic igneous rocks and red soils developed from calcareous rocks are strongly aggregated due to the cementing property of iron oxides, hence, soil erosion is expected to be less than for most other soils. Also soils developed from fragmentary volcanic materials with andic properties are resistant to soil erosion (Sheng, 1986; Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad, 1990; Lal, 1990). Soils formed from shales, schists, phyillites and sandstones are considered highly erodible. Soils produced from these rocks are high in both sand or silt fraction, and clay minerals and iron oxides are generally insufficient as cementing agents for a stable-structured soil. These parent materials are generally rich in muscovite occurring in all soil particle-size fractions. Micah-rich soils are weak-structured, and thus raindrops can easily dislodged the weak aggregates, while the clay fraction dispersed in water. The resulting mica flakes settling on their flat axes in the water film on the soil surface causes soil crusting. The formation of soil crusts further restricts water entry into the soil (Ahmad and Robin, 1971; Sumner, 1995), resulting to disposal of a much greater volume of runoff water, a condition which leads to further disintegration of soil aggregates and transport of colloidal soil material (Ahmad, 1987; Ahmad 1990). Soil crust restricts gaseous exchange leading to anaerobic soil conditions, denitrification, toxic effects due to ethylene production, and mechanical impedance to seedling emergence (Ahmad 1987; Ahmad, 1990). Steep slope cultivation can cause certain instability in the ecological system with both onsite and offsite detrimental impacts (El-Swaify, Garnier and Lo, 1987). Soil, climate, land use and farming systems affect the extent and the degree of severity of soil erosion. However, regardless of soil and climatic conditions, intensively used steeplands in densely populated regions experience severe soil erosion problem. Land use influences the degree of severity of soil erosion on steeplands. Uncontrollable grazing or over grazing, exensive and abusive cultivation, diversified cropping are responsible for severe soil erosion in unprotected arable lands (Roose, 1988; Liao et al 1988). Ahmad (1987;1990) reportd soil loss of approximately 120 t0 180 tonnes per hectare in Tobago Trinidad. In Australia, annual soil loss of 200 t/ha to 328 t/ha has ben reported from sloping sugar cane plantations in central and north Queensland (Sallaway, 1979; Mathews and Makepeace 1981). There are two types of soil erosion associated with the Caribbean region, land slipping and gullying. Land slipping is a manifestation of mass movement associated with steepland agriculture and the severity being strongly influenced by the parent materials. Land clearing (example deforestation) and crop production can influence land slipping particularly in the early portion of the wet season when the cleared soil wets faster due to saturation of the soil above rock. Serious dislocations, crop loss and destruction of any mechanical anti erosion devices can result from this form of mass movements. Due to drastic changes in hydrological conditions experienced by land naturally prone already to slipping and cleared for agriculture for the first time land slippage would be of common experience (Ahmad 1987; Ahmad 1990). Gullying is another common form of soil erosion that occurs on steep land bcause of the terrain involved. This is more common on sandy soils, volcanic soils and vertisols, which are all porous materials. Soils easily attain saturated conditions upon the rapid entry of water, consequently breaking the material and ultimately, leading to the formation of gullies. Agricultural activities enables this soil erosion in steeplands by allowing rapid soil wetting upon the start of the wet season. Farming activities though unsuitably oriented field boundaries, foot tracks and the lack of provision for disposal of surface water are some main causes of gullying, even on soils not prone to this tpe of steepland soil erosion (Ahmad 1987;Ahmad 1990). Since steeplands are traditionally considered marginal for agricultural crop production, most research on soil erosion and soil conservation has been done on either flat land or rolling land with a maximum slope of about 20%'(Lal, 1988). 2.5 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion The causes of soil erosion have been intensively discussed during the past 40 years. Soil erosion is a natural process that is enhanced by human activity (Richter, 1998) and occurs in all landscapes and under different land uses. In addition to human activities, soil erosion processes are also caused by morphometric characteristics of the land surface, the erosive forces of rainfall and the erodibility of soils and soil surfaces. When rainwater reaches the soil surface it will either enter the soil or run off. Runoff occurs when the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Water erosion is the result of the dispersion action of rain drops, the transporting power of water and also the vulnerability of the soil to dispersion and movement (Baver and Gardner, 1972). The effects of soil erosion is also classified: definition of gullies and explanation of gully development is given by Morgan (1996), as well as Hudson (1995) who additionally focuses on individual cases of the development of gullies. Toy et al (2002) give detailed definitions of soil erosion features and processes such as sheet erosion and inter-rill erosion, rill erosion, as well as ephemeral and permanent gully erosion. Rill erodibility depends both directly and indirectly on soil properties such as bulk density, organic carbon and clay content, clay mineralogy, cations in the exchange complex, soil pH and experimental conditions such as moisture content, aging of prewetted soil and quality of eroding water (Rapp,1998). Govers (1990) found that runoff erosion resisitance of a loamy material was extremely sensitive to variation in the initial moisture content and to a lesser extent to changes in bulk density. The process of water erosion can be separated into two components, rill and interrill erosion (Young and Onstad, 1978). Interrill erosion (sheet erosion) is mainly caused by raindrop impact and removes soil in a thin almost imperceptible layer (Foster, 1989). In interril erosion the flow of water is generally unconfined, except between soil clods and covers much of the soil surface. As the velocity of flow increases the water incises into the soil and rills forms (Evans,1980). Rill erosion begins when the eroding capacity of the flow at some point exceeds the ability of the soil particles to resistant detachment by flow (Meyer cited by Rapp, 1998). Soil is detached by headcut advance from knickpoints (De Ploey, 1989; Bryan, 1990), rill slide sloughing and hydraulic shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998) as well as by slumping by undercutting of side walls and scour hole formation (Van Liew and Saxton, 1983). These processes are usually combined into a detachment prediction equation as a function of average shear stress (Foster cited by Rapp, 1998). When the rills develop in the landscape, a three to five fold increase in the soil loss commonly occurs (Moss, Green and Hutka 1982 and Meyer and Harmon 1984). 2.5.1 Vegetative Factors The effects of vegetation can be classified into three catergories: The interception of raindrops by the canopy (DHuyvetter, 1985). Two effects are associated with this. Firstly, part of the intercepted water will evaporate from the leaves and stems and thus reduce runoff. Secondly, when raindrops strike the vegetation, the energy of the drops is dissipated and there is no direct impact on the soil surface. The interception percentage depends on the type of crop, the growth stage and the number of plants per unit area. A well distributed, close growing surface vegetative cover will slow down the rate at which water flows down the slope and will also reduce concentration of water (DHuyvetter, 1985). As a result, it will decrease the erosive action of running water. There is also the effect of roots and biological activity on the formation of stable aggregrates, which results in a stable soil structure and increased infiltration that reduces runoff and decreases erosion (DHuyvetter, 1985). Increased permeability also reduces erosion as a result of in increased water percolation due to better drainage. Stables aggregrates in the topsoil also counteract crusting. 2.5.2 Rainfall Factors Raindrop size, shape, duration of a storm and wind speed interactions controls the erosive power of rainfall (DHuyvetter, 1985). The erosivity of rainfall is expressed in terms of kinetic energy and is affected by various factors. According to Wischmeier and Smith (1965), the intensity of rainfall is closely related tot e kinetic energy, according to the regression equation E = 1.213 + 0.890 log I Where E = the kinetic energy (kg.m/m2.mm) I = rainfall intensity (mm/h) Raindrop size, distribution and shape all influence the energy momentum of a rainstorm. Laws and Parson (1943) reported an increase in median drop size with increase in rain intensity. The relationship between mean drop size (D50) and rainfall is given by: D50:2.23 I 0.182 (inch per hour). The median size of rain drops increases with low and medium intensity fall, but declines slightly for high intensity rainfall (Gerrard, 1981). The kinetic energy of an rainfall event is also related to the velocity of the raindrops at the time of impact with the soil (DHuyvetter, 1985). The distance through which the rain drop must fall to maintain terminal velocity is a function of drop size. The kinetic energy of a rainstorm is related to the terminal velocity according to the equation: Ek = IV2/2 Where Ek = energy of the rain storm I = Intensity V= Velocity of raindrop before impact Ellison (1945) developed an equation showing that the relationship between the soil detached, terminal velocity, drop diameter and rainfall intensity: E = KV4.33 d1.07 I0.63 Where E = relative amount of soil detached K = soil constant V = velocity of raindrops (ft/sec) d = diameter of raindrops (mm) I = rainfall intensity 2.5.2.1 Effect of rainfall intensity on runoff and soil loss According to Morgan (1995), soil loss is closely related to rainfall partly through the detaching power of raindrops striking the soil surface and the contribution of rain to runoff. If rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration capacity of the soil, no surface runoff occurs and the infiltration rate would equal the rainfall intensity (Horton, 1945) as sited by Morgan (1995). If the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, the infiltration rate equals the infiltration capacity and the excess rainfall forms surface runoff. According to Morgan (1995), when the soil is unsaturated, the soil matric potential is negative and water is held in the capillaries due to matrics suction. For this reason, under saturated conditions sands may produce runoff very quickly although their infiltration capacity is not exceeded by the rainfall intensity. Intensity partially controls hydraulic conductivity, increasing the rainfall intensity may cause conductivity to rise so that although runoff may have formed rapidly at relatively low rainfall intensity, higher rainfall intensities do not always produce greater runoff (Morgan, 1995). This mechanism explains the reason why infiltration rates sometimes increase with rainfall intensities (Nassif and Wilson, 1975). 2.5.3 Soil Factors According to Baver et al, (1972), the effect of soil properties on water erosion can be in two ways : Firstly, certain properties determine the rate at which rainfall enters the soil. Secondly, some properties affect the resistance of the soil against dispersion and erosion during rainfall and runoff. The particle size distribution is an important soil property with regards to erodibility. Generally it is found that erodible soils have a low clay content (DHuyvetter, 1985). Soils with more than 35% clay are often regarded as being cohesive and having stable aggregates which are resistant to dispersion by raindrops (Evans, 1980). Evans also stated that sands and coarse loamy sands are not easily eroded by water due to its high infiltration rate. In contrast soils with a high silt or fine sand fraction are very erodible. Erodibility of soil increases with the proportion of aggregates less than 0.5mm (Bryan, 1974). Factors which contribute to aggregate stability include organic matter content, root secretions, mucilaginous gels formed by break down of organic matter, the binding of particles by sesquioxides and the presence of a high Ca concentration on the exchange sites of the colloids instead of a high sodium content (DHuyvetter, 1985). The depth of erosion is determined by the soil profile (Evans, 1980). According to Evans soil horizons below the A horizon or plough layer are often more compact and less erodible. The texture and chemical composition of the sub surface horizon can also have an adverse effect. Normally deep gullies can be cut if the parent material is unconsolidated. If resistant bedrock is near the surface only rills will develop. Soil rich in surface stones are less susceptible to erosion (Lamb, 1950 and Evans, 1980). Stones protect the soil against erosion and also increase the infiltration of the flowing water into the soil. The antecedent soil moisture and the surface roughness are both regarded by Evans (1980) as important soil factors affecting erosion. The ability of a soil to accept rainfall depends on the moisture content at the time of the rainfall event. 2.5.3.1 Factors affecting aggregate stability Soil structure is determined by the shape and size distribution of aggregates. Aggregrate size and strengthe determine the physical properties of a soil and its susceptibility to breakdown due to water forces. Their stability will have a decisive effect on soil physical properties (Lynch and Bragg, 1985). The main binding materials giving stable aggregates in air dry state are the glueing agents in organic matter (Chaney and Swift, 1984; Tisdale and Oades, 1982) and sesquioxides (Goldberg and Glaubic, 1987). 2.5.3.1.1 Aluminium and Iron Oxides The soil used by Kemper and Koch (1966) contained relatively little free iron, although it did contribute to aggregrate stability. Their data show a sharp increase of free iron from 1 to 3%. Goldberg and Glaubic (1987) concluded that Al-oxides were more effective than Fe-oxides in stabilizing soil structure. Al-oxides have a greater proportion of sub-micrometer size particles in a sheet form as opposed to the spherical form of Fe-particles. Shainberg, Singer and Janitzky (1987) compared the effect of aluminium and iron oxides on the hydraulic conductivity of a sandy soil. 2.5.3.1.2 Organic Matter Organic matter can bind soil particles together into stable soil aggregates. The stabilizing effect of organic matter is well documented. Little detailed information is available on the organic matter content required to sufficiently strengthen aggregates with ESP values greater than 5 or 7, and containing illite or montmorrillionite, so as to prevent their dispersion in water (Smith, 1990). High humus content makes the soil less susceptible to the unfavourable influence of sodium (Van den Berg, De Boer, Van der Malen, Verhoeven, Westerhof and Zuur, 1953). Kemper and Koch (1966) also found that aggregate stability increased with an increase in the organic matter content of soils. A maximum increase of aggregate stability was found with up to 2% organic matter, after which aggregate stability increased very little with further increases in organic matter content. 2.5.3 Slope Factors Slope characteristics are important in determining the amount of runoff and erosion ( DHuyvetter, 1985). As slope gradient increases, runoff and erosion usually increases (Stern, 1990). At low slopes due to the low overland flow velocities, detachment of soil particles from the soil surface into the water layer is due to detachment alone (Stern, 1990). Additionally, at low slope gradients, particles are splashed into the air in random directions unlike the case with steeply sloping land where down slope splash occurs (Watson and Laflen, 1985). As slope gradient increases, the ability for surface runoff to entrain and transport sediments increases rapidly until the entrainment by the surface runoff becomes dominant contributing to sediment transport (Stern, 1990). Foster , Meyer and Onstad (1976) presented a conceptual model that showed that at lower slopes, interill transport determined erosion, while at steeper slopes, raindrop detachment determined it. Th uniform bed characteristics of sheet flow transport tend to be replaced by channels because of instability and turbulent flow effects (Moss, Green and Hutka, 1982). There are many empirical relationships relating soil transport by surface wash to slope length and slope gradient. Zingg (1940) showed that erosion varied according to the equation: S = X1.6 tanB1.4 Where S = soil transport cm/yr X = slope length (m) B = slope gradient (%) Studies conducted by Gerrard (1981), showed that plane and convex slopes did not differ significantly in the amount of soil lost by surface runoff, but concave slopes were less eroded. Some researchers such as Zingg (1940) and Mc Cool et al (1987) indicated that soil erosion increases exponentially with increase in slope gradient. The relationship is indicated after Zing (1940) by: E = aSb where E is the soil erosion, S is the slope gradient (%) and a and b are empirical constants. The value of b ranges from 1.35 to 2.0. The other relationship between erosion and slope gradient for inter-rill erosion is given by Mc Cool et al (1987) E = a sin b Q+C Q is the slope angle in degrees A,b and C are empirical constants. However, even if the effect of slope gradient on erosion is well recognized, several studies indicate that the power relationship between slope gradient and soil loss over predicts interrill erosion rate by as much as two or more times (Torri, 1996;Fox and Bryan, 1999), and the relationship is better described as linear. 2.8 Soil Erosion Impacts 2.8.1 Soil Physical Properties Progressive soil erosion increases the magnitude of soil related constraints for crop production. These constraints can be physical, chemical and biological. The important physical constraints caused by erosion are reduced rooting depth, loss of soil water storing capacity (Schertz et al 1984; Sertsu, 2000), crusting and soil compaction and hardening of plinthite (Lal, 1988). Erosion also results in the loss of clay colloids due to preferential removal of fine particles from the soil surface (Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). The loss of clay influences soil tilth and consistency. Exposed subsoil is often of massive structure and harder consistency than the aggregated surface soil (Lal, 1988). Development of rills and gullies may change the micro-relief that may make use of farming machinery difficult. Another effect of erosion is that the manangement and timing of farm operations. 2.8.2 Soil Chemical Properties Soil erosion reduces the fertility status of soils (Morgan, 1986; Williams et al., 1990). Soil chemical constraints and nutritional problems related to soil erosion include low CEC, low plant nutrients (NPK) and trace elements (Lal, 1988; Fullen and Brandsma, 1995). Massy et al (1953) reported an average loss of 192 kg of organic matter, 10.6 kg of N and 1.8kg per ha on a Winsconsin soils with 11% slope. Sharpley and Smith (1990) reported that the mean annual loss of total P in runoff from P fertilized watersheds is equivalent to an average of 15%, 12% and 32% of the annual fertilizer P applied to wheat, mixed crop grass and peanut sorghum rotation practices respectively. Researchers (Massy et al 1953; Lal, 1975) have also reported extensive loss of N in eroded sediments. 2.8.3 Productivity Quantifying the effects on crop yields is a difficult task. It involves the evaluation of interactions between soil properties, crop characteristics and climate. The effects are also cumulative and not observed until long after accelerated erosion begins. The degree of soil erosions effects on crop yield depends on soil profile characteristics and management systems. It is difficult to establish a direct relationship between rates of soil erosion and erosion induced soil degradation on the one hand and crop yield on the other (Lal, 1988). It is well known that soil erosion can reduce crop yields through loss of nutrients, structural degradation and reduce of depth and water holding capacity (Timilin et al, 1986; Lal,1988). Loss of production in eroded soil further degrades its productivity which in turn accelerates soil erosion. The cumulative effect observed over a long period of time may lead to irreversible loss of productivity in shallow soils with hardened plinthite or in soils that respond to expensive management and additional inputs (Lal,1988). 2.8.4 Off Site Effects of Soil Erosion. Effects of erosion include siltation of rivers, crop failure at low lying areas due to flooding, pollution of waterbodies due to the various chemicals brought by the runoff from different areas. Several studies reported the significance of the off site effects of soil erosion on land degradation (eg. Wall and ven Den,1987; Lo, 1990; Robertson and Colletti, 1994; Petkovic et al, 1999) Rainwater washes away materials that originate from fertilizers and various biocides (fungicides, insecticides, herbicides and pesticides) which are applied in large concentrations. They reappear in greatr quantities in the hydrosphere polluting and contaminating the water environment (Zachar,1982;Withers, and Lord, 2002; Verstraeten and Poesen, 2002). Chemical pollution of water mainly by organic matter from farm fields causes rapid eutrophication in waterways (Zachar, 1982;Zakova et al, 1993; Lijklema, 1995). 2.8.5 Soil Erosion Models Modelling soil erosion is the process of mathematically describing soil particle detachment, transport and deposition on land surfaces (Nearing et al, 1994). Erosion models are used as predictive tools for assessing soil loss and project planning. They can also be used for understanding erosion processes and their impacts (Nearing et al 1994). There are three main types of models, empirical or statistical models, conceptual models and physically based models (Morgan 1995, Nearing et al 1994, Merritt et al 2003). It is important to note however that there is no sharp difference among them. 2.8.5.1 Physically Based Models These models are based on solving fundamental physical equations describing stream flow and sediment and associated nutrient generations in a specific catchment (Merritt et al ., 2003). They are developed to predict the spatial distribution of runoff and sediment over land surfaces during individual storms in addition to total runoff and soil loss (Morgan, 1995). Physically based models are also called process based models (Morgan, 1995) as they rely on empirical equations to determine erosion processes. These models use a particular differential equation known as the continuity equation which is a statement of conservation of matter as it moves through space over time. The common physically based models used in water quality studies and erosion include : The Areal Non-Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation (ANSWERS) (Beasley et al., 1980), Chemical Runoff and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems (CREAMS) (Knisel, 1980), Griffith University Erosion System Temp late (GUEST) (Misra and Rose, 1996), European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM) (Morgan, 1998), Productivity, Erosion and Runoff, Functions to Evaluate Conservation Techniques (PERFECT) (Littleboy et al., 1992) and Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) (Laflen et al., 1991). 2.8.5.2 Empirical M